Maternal risk factors in fetal alcohol syndrome: Provocative and permissive influences

With the pregnant rat under ether anesthesia, rat fetuses were exposed on Day 17 of gestation to a taste/odor stimulus {mint) injected into the amniotic fluid and/or lithium chloride injected into the peritoneum. Behavior of injected fetuses was directly observed on Day 19 of gestation following chemomyelotomy and laparotomy of the female and immersion of the uterus into a warm saline bath. With these procedures, a series of four experiments was conducted to assess the behavioral effects of (a) the mint taste/odor alone, (b) the LiC1 alone, (c) the pairing of mint and LiC1 on the day of conditioning, and (d) the reexposure to mint after an earlier pairing of mint and LiC1. These experiments provide clear evidence that rat fetuses are capable of forming conditioned taste/odor aversions as early as Day 17 of gestation and, further, that rat fetuses are capable of expressing these learned aversions in utero. Several studies recently have shown that manipulation of the uterine environment late in gestation can promote learning by rat fetuses. Rat fetuses that are presented in utero with citral, a lemon scent, prefer to attach and suckle postnatally from nipples scented with citral (Pedersen & Blass, 1982). Similarly, when rat fetuses are exposed to a taste/odor stimulus, such as apple juice, paired with an ip injection of lithium chloride, subsequent experiences with the taste odor will cause the pups to exhibit avoidance behavior. Fetuses exposed to these treatments prenatally, when tested postnatally, (a) avoid nipples

The rat fetus in its environment: behavioral adjustments to novel, familiar, aversive, and conditioned stimuli presented in utero.

Environmental determinants of behaviour in the rat fetus

Foetal movements commence at seven weeks of gestation, with the foetal movement repertoire including twitches, whole body movements, stretches, isolated limb movements, breathing movements, head and neck movements, jaw movements (including yawning, sucking and swallowing) and hiccups by ten weeks of gestational age. There are two key biomechanical aspects to gross foetal movements; the first being that the foetus moves in a dynamically changing constrained physical environment in which the freedom to move becomes increasingly restricted with increasing foetal size and decreasing amniotic fluid. Therefore, the mechanical environment experienced by the foetus affects its ability to move freely. Secondly, the mechanical forces induced by foetal movements are crucial for normal skeletal development, as evidenced by a number of conditions and syndromes for which reduced or abnormal foetal movements are implicated, such as developmental dysplasia of the hip, arthrogryposis and foetal akinesia deformation sequence. This review examines both the biomechanical effects of the physical environment on foetal movements through discussion of intrauterine factors, such as space, foetal positioning and volume of amniotic fluid, and the biomechanical role of gross foetal movements in human skeletal development through investigation of the effects of abnormal movement on the bones and joints. This review also highlights computational simulations of foetal movements that attempt to determine the mechanical forces acting on the foetus as it moves. Finally, avenues for future research into foetal movement biomechanics are highlighted, which have potential impact for a diverse range of fields including foetal medicine, musculoskeletal disorders and tissue engineering.

/pdf/biomechanics-of-foetal-movement-1s0amclnah.pdf

Biomechanics of foetal movement.

Human Fetal Behavior: 100 Years of Study☆☆☆

Effect of maternal ethanol ingestion on fetal breathing movements, gross body movements, and heart rate at 37 to 40 weeks' gestational age

Absence or impaired response of fetal breathing to intravenous glucose is associated with pulmonary hypoplasia in congenital myotonic dystrophy

Maternal glucose injections do not alter the suppression of fetal breathing following maternal ethanol ingestion

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Effect of maternal ethanol ingestion on fetal breathing movements, gross body movements, and heart rate at 37 to 40 weeks' gestational age

Absence or impaired response of fetal breathing to intravenous glucose is associated with pulmonary hypoplasia in congenital myotonic dystrophy

Maternal glucose injections do not alter the suppression of fetal breathing following maternal ethanol ingestion