Current research on prosocial behavior covers a broad and diverse range of phenomena. We argue that this large research literature can be best organized and understood from a multilevel perspective. We identify three levels of analysis of prosocial behavior: (a) the “meso” level—the study of helper-recipient dyads in the context of a specific situation; (b) the micro level—the study of the origins of prosocial tendencies and the sources of variation in these tendencies; and (c) the macro level—the study of prosocial actions that occur within the context of groups and large organizations. We present research at each level and discuss similarities and differences across levels. Finally, we consider ways in which theory and research at these three levels of analysis might be combined in future intra- and interdisciplinary research on prosocial behavior.

https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~schaller/Psyc591Readings/PennerDovidioPiliavinSchroeder2005.pdf

Prosocial Behavior: Multilevel Perspectives

Interest in the concept of identity has grown exponentially within both the humanities and social sciences, but the discussion of identity has had less impact than might be expected on the quantitative study of political behavior in general and on political psychology more specifically. One of the approaches that holds the most promise for political psychologists is social identity theory, as reflected in the thinking of Henri Tajfel, John Turner, and colleagues. Although the theory addresses the kinds of problems of interest to political psychologists, it has had limited impact on political psychology because of social identity theorists' disinclination to examine the sources of social identity in a real world complicated by history and culture. In this review, four key issues are examined that hinder the successful application of social identity theory to political phenomena. These key issues are the existence of identity choice, the subjective meaning of identities, gradations in identity strength, and the considerable stability of many social and political identities.

From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory

Two experiments exploring the effects of social category membership on real-life helping behavior are reported. In Study 1, intergroup rivalries between soccer fans are used to examine the role of identity in emergency helping. An injured stranger wearing an in-group team shirt is more likely to be helped than when wearing a rival team shirt or an unbranded sports shirt. In Study 2, a more inclusive social categorization is made salient for potential helpers. Helping is extended to those who were previously identified as out-group members but not to those who do not display signs of group membership. Taken together, the studies show the importance of both shared identity between bystander and victim and the inclusiveness of salient identity for increasing the likelihood of emergency intervention.

Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior

Extending the Benefits of Recategorization: Evaluations, Self-Disclosure, and Helping

We investigate how two important social identities—gender identity and moral identity—result in differential donations to in‐groups and out‐groups. Results from three studies indicate that moral identity importance tends to increase donations to out‐groups (Iraq, Indonesia) and not to in‐groups (London, New Orleans). However, this occurs only for consumers with a feminine gender identity. For consumers with a masculine gender identity, moral identity importance increases donations to the in‐group but not the out‐group. Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) mediates the moderating role of gender identity on the effect of moral identity on in‐group and out‐group donations.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/596720

Donation Behavior toward In-Groups and Out-Groups: The Role of Gender and Moral Identity

In four experiments, subjects were informed of a threat from various sources to members of a social category to which they belonged. They were also given the opportunity to help a target person. The results of the first two experiments showed that in-group bias occurred only when the threat was from a social source rather than a nonsocial source or when there was no threat. The third experiment showed that the bias favored only those similar on the threatened category rather than those similar on another non-threatened category. The fourth experiment showed that when subjects knew the source of the threat, the bias was against only members of the threatening group, even when the threat was attributed to similar others. These findings indicate that interdependence resulting from a shared threat, rather than similarity alone, seems to play a key role in the formation of in-group boundaries.

A Comparison of Similarity and Interdependence as Triggers for In-Group Formation

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A Comparison of Similarity and Interdependence as Triggers for In-Group Formation