Antinutritional factors present in plant-derived alternate fish feed ingredients and their effects in fish

Continued growth and intensi¢cation of aquaculture production depends upon the development of sustainable protein sources to replace ¢sh meal in aquafeeds. This document reviews various plant feedstuis, which currently are or potentially may be incorporated into aquafeeds to support the sustainable production of various ¢sh species in aquaculture. The plant feedstuis considered include oilseeds, legumes and cereal grains, which traditionally have been used as protein or energy concentrates as well as novel products developed through various processing technologies. The nutritional composition of these various feedstuis are considered along with the presence of any bioactive compounds that may positively or negatively aiect the target organism. Lipid composition of these feedstuis is not speci¢cally considered although it is recognized that incorporating lipid supplements in aquafeeds to achieve proper fatty acid pro¢les to meet the metabolic requirements of ¢sh and maximize human health bene¢ts are important aspects. Speci¢c strategies and techniques to optimize the nutritional composition of plant feedstuis and limit potentially adverse eiects of bioactive compounds are also described. Such information will provide a foundation for developing strategic research plans for increasing the use of plant feedstuis in aquaculture to reduce dependence of animal feedstuis and thereby enhance the sustainability of aquaculture.

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Expanding the utilization of sustainable plant products in aquafeeds: a review

Unsustainable fishing practices have placed a heavy emphasis on aquaculture to meet the global shortfalls in the supply of fish and seafood, which are commonly accepted as the primary source of health-promoting essential omega-3 (n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids). However, dietary fish oil is required for the production of omega-3-rich farmed fish and this commodity, in a vicious circle, is at present derived solely from wild fisheries. Decreasing global availability coupled with the highly variable price of this resource has forced the aquaculture industry to investigate the possibilities of alternative dietary lipid sources. This review attempts to compile all principal information available regarding the effects of fish oil replacement for the diets of farmed finfish, analysing the findings using a comparative approach among different cultured fish species. The review initially focuses on the present situation with regard to the production, availability and main nutritional characteristics of fish oil and the principal alternative lipid sources (such as vegetable oils and animal fats). Following this, the effects of fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition on feed quality, fish performance, feed efficiency, fish lipid metabolism, final eating quality and related economic aspects are presented and discussed.

Fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition

1. Stable isotopes of nitrogen and carbon are widely used in the evaluation and understanding of trophic interactions, and especially so in aquatic food-webs. However, differences among tissues which occur in consumers such as fish may confound resolution of these ecological relationships, and greatly affect dietary compositions calculated through mass-balance equations. 2. δ 13 C and δ 15 N were determined for homogenized whole fry ( 2.7 g) and particular tissues (white muscle, red muscle, liver and heart) of juveniles (= 20.6 g) of Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. 3. Differences in δ 13 C and δ 15 N were observed among tissues; removal of lipid resulted in these tissues becoming statistically indistinguishable but more variable in δ 13 C, particularly in tissues with higher lipid content. Differences in δ 15 N among tissues may be related to the relative composition of 'essential' and 'non-essential' amino acids. 5. Acidification, which is used to reduce variability caused by the presence of inorganic carbonate, had a significant effect on δ 15 N, while having a non-significant effect on the δ 13 C This was the case for whole ground fish-fry, which contained 22.6% inorganic carbonates in the form of bones and scales, and for individual fish tissues which contained only very small amounts of inorganic carbonate. 6. White muscle was found to be less variable in δ 13 C and δ 15 N than all other tissues, and is probably the best tissue for use in ecological work. Red muscle, which is often closely associated with white muscle, is more variable in δ 13 C and may constitute a source of significant error in source material identification and dietary overlap.

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-2435.1999.00301.x

Differential fractionation of δ13C and δ15N among fish tissues: implications for the study of trophic interactions

Essential fatty acid (EFA) requirements vary qualitatively and quantitatively with both species and during ontogeny of fish, with early developmental stages and broodstock being critical periods. Environment and/or trophic level are major factors, with freshwater/diadromous species generally requiring C18 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) whereas marine fish have a strict requirement for long-chain PUFA, eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids. Other than marine fish larvae, defining precise quantitative or semi-quantitative EFA requirements in fish have received less attention in recent years. However, the changes to feed formulations being forced upon the aquaculture industry by the pressing need for sustainable development, namely the replacement of marine fish meal and oils with plant-derived products, have reintroduced EFA into the research agenda. It is particularly important to note that the physiological requirements of the fish to prevent deficiency pathologies and produce optimal growth may not parallel the requirements for maintaining nutritional quality. For instance, salmonids can be successfully cultured on vegetable oils devoid of long-chain n-3 PUFA but not without potentially compromising their health benefits to the human consumer. Solving this problem will require detailed knowledge of the biochemical and molecular basis of EFA requirements and metabolism.

Fatty acid requirements in ontogeny of marine and freshwater fish

The apparent and true amino acid availability values for corn, wheat middlings, rice bran, rice mill feed, soybean meal, peanut meal, cottonseed meal, meat and bone meal, and two different samples of menhaden fish meal were determined in adult channel catfish. Although there was reasonable agreement between protein digestibility values and average amino acid availability values, individual amino acid availabilities were variable within and among the various feed ingredients tested. Therefore, we recommended that amino acid availability values should be used for more accurate catfish feed formulation. In addition, it appears that the use of true amino acid availability values should be used for feed ingredients of relatively low protein content.

Apparent and true availability of amino acids from common feed ingredients for channel catfish.

Impaired collagen formation in the scorbutic channel catfish.

Two experiments were conducted to reevaluate the dietary phosphorus requirement of fingerling channel catfish. Basal diets containing either casein with supplemental inorganic phosphorus and 0.5% total calcium or egg albumin with supplemental inorganic phosphorus and 0.75% total calcium yielded similar requirement data. Eleven-week growth, feed efficiency, serum phosphorus, bone ash, bone calcium and bon phosphorus data indicate that 0.33% apparent available dietary phosphorus is adequate for maximum growth and bone mineralization. Based on these data and previous findings, we would suggest a value of 0.4% apparent available phosphorus be used in formulating catfish feeds. The apparent availability of phosphorus from soybean meal, as determined by the chromic oxide indicator method, was 29% for channel catfish.

Dietary Phosphorus Requirement of Channel Catfish

A series of growth studies, utilizing casein-gelatin based diets supplemented with crystalline amino acids, were conducted to determine the arginine requirement for fingerling channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and to evaluate the effects of excessive levels of dietary lysine and arginine Weight gain and feed efficiency data indicate the arginine requirement to be 103 +/- 007% and 100 +/- 006% of the dry diet, respectively Based on growth this corresponds to 429% of the dietary protein There was no evidence of an arginine-lysine antagonism when excess lysine was fed in diets adequate or marginal in arginine Similarly, growth and feed efficiency data suggest the lack of an antagonism when excess arginine is added to diets marginal in lysine Apparently channel catfish are not as sensitive to disproportionate lysine and arginine levels as are other animals

Arginine Requirement and Apparent Absence of a Lysine-Arginine Antagonist in Fingerling Channel Catfish

Growth studies were conducted with fingerling channel catfish to determine the minimal requirements for the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine and histidine. The experimental diets were formulated from purified ingredients to contain 24% crude protein and 275 kcal/100 g diet. Casein and gelatin served as protein sources and were supplemented with crystalline L-amino acids to provide the amino acid pattern found in 24% crude protein from whole egg powder. Based on dry diet the catfish required 0.84 +/- 0.04% leucine, 0.62 +/- 0.04% isoleucine, 0.71 +/- 0.03% valine and 0.37 +/- 0.01% histidine. These values correspond to 3.50% leucine, 2.58% isoleucine 2.96% valine and 1.54% histidine when expressed as a percentage of dietary protein. Quantitation of serum free amino acid levels revealed a marked increase in valine and isoleucine in leucine-deficient fish. In addition, increases in dietary isoleucine or valine resulted in changes in the serum levels of isoleucine, valine and leucine. These data indicate an apparent interaction among these amino acids in the catfish comparable to that previously observed in other species. Dietary histidine caused no increase in serum free histidine levels until the dietary requirement was reached. Muscle carnosine could not be detected in the catfish.

Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine and Histidine Requirements of Fingerling Channel Catfish

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