Probability Distributions.- Linear Models for Regression.- Linear Models for Classification.- Neural Networks.- Kernel Methods.- Sparse Kernel Machines.- Graphical Models.- Mixture Models and EM.- Approximate Inference.- Sampling Methods.- Continuous Latent Variables.- Sequential Data.- Combining Models.

Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning

Deep learning on image denoising: An overview.

Recently deep learning (DL), as a new data-driven technique compared to conventional approaches, has attracted increasing attention in geophysical community, resulting in many opportunities and challenges. DL was proven to have the potential to predict complex system states accurately and relieve the “curse of dimensionality” in large temporal and spatial geophysical applications. We address the basic concepts, state-of-the-art literature, and future trends by reviewing DL approaches in various geosciences scenarios. Exploration geophysics, earthquakes, and remote sensing are the main focuses. More applications, including Earth structure, water resources, atmospheric science, and space science, are also reviewed. Additionally, the difficulties of applying DL in the geophysical community are discussed. The trends of DL in geophysics in recent years are analyzed. Several promising directions are provided for future research involving DL in geophysics, such as unsupervised learning, transfer learning, multimodal DL, federated learning, uncertainty estimation, and active learning. A coding tutorial and a summary of tips for rapidly exploring DL are presented for beginners and interested readers of geophysics.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2021RG000742

Deep learning for geophysics: Current and future trends

Seismic waves from earthquakes and other sources are used to infer the structure and properties of Earth’s interior. The availability of large-scale seismic datasets and the suitability of deep-learning techniques for seismic data processing have pushed deep learning to the forefront of fundamental, long-standing research investigations in seismology. However, some aspects of applying deep learning to seismology are likely to prove instructive for the geosciences, and perhaps other research areas more broadly. Deep learning is a powerful approach, but there are subtleties and nuances in its application. We present a systematic overview of trends, challenges, and opportunities in applications of deep-learning methods in seismology. Description Large-scale learning The large amount and availability of datasets in seismology creates a great opportunity to apply machine learning and artificial intelligence to data processing. Mousavi and Beroza provide a comprehensive review of the deep-learning techniques being applied to seismic datasets, covering approaches, limitations, and opportunities. The trends in data processing and analysis can be instructive for geoscience and other research areas more broadly. —BG The ways in which deep learning can help process and analyze large seismological datasets are reviewed. BACKGROUND Seismology is the study of seismic waves to understand their origin—most obviously, sudden fault slip in earthquakes, but also explosions, volcanic eruptions, glaciers, landslides, ocean waves, vehicular traffic, aircraft, trains, wind, air guns, and thunderstorms, for example. Seismology uses those same waves to infer the structure and properties of planetary interiors. Because sources can generate waves at any time, seismic ground motion is recorded continuously, at typical sampling rates of 100 points per second, for three components of motion, and on arrays that can include thousands of sensors. Although seismology is clearly a data-rich science, it often is a data-driven science as well, with new phenomena and unexpected behavior discovered with regularity. And for at least some tasks, the careful and painstaking work of seismic analysts over decades and around the world has also made seismology a data label–rich science. This facet makes it fertile ground for deep learning, which has entered almost every subfield of seismology and outperforms classical approaches, often dramatically, for many seismological tasks. ADVANCES Seismic wave identification and onset-time, first-break determination for seismic P and S waves within continuous seismic data are foundational to seismology and are particularly well suited to deep learning because of the availability of massive, labeled datasets. It has received particularly close attention, and that has led, for example, to the development of deep learning–based earthquake catalogs that can feature more than an order of magnitude more events than are present in conventional catalogs. Deep learning has shown the ability to outperform classical approaches for other important seismological tasks as well, including the discrimination of earthquakes from explosions and other sources, separation of seismic signals from background noise, seismic image processing and interpretation, and Earth model inversion. OUTLOOK The development of increasingly cost-effective sensors and emerging ground-motion sensing technologies, such as fiber optic cable and accelerometers in smart devices, portend a continuing acceleration of seismological data volumes, so that deep learning is likely to become essential to seismology’s future. Deep learning’s nonlinear mapping ability, sequential data modeling, automatic feature extraction, dimensionality reduction, and reparameterization are all advantageous for processing high-dimensional seismic data, particularly because those data are noisy and, from the point of view of mathematical inference, incomplete. Deep learning for scientific discovery and direct extraction of insight into seismological processes is clearly just getting started. Aspects of seismology pose interesting additional challenges for deep learning. Many of the most important problems in earthquake seismology—such as earthquake forecasting, ground motion prediction, and rapid earthquake alerting—concern large and damaging earthquakes that are (fortunately) rare. That rarity poses a fundamental challenge for the data-hungry methods of deep learning: How can we train reliable models, and how do we validate them well enough to rely on them when data are scarce and opportunities to test models are infrequent? Further, how can we operationalize deep-learning techniques in such a situation, when the mechanisms by which they make predictions from data may not be easily explained, and the consequences of incorrect models are high? Incorporating domain knowledge through physics-based and explainable deep learning and setting up standard benchmarking and evaluation protocols will help ensure progress, as is the nascent emergence of a seismological data science ecosystem. More generally, a combination of data science literacy for geoscientists as well as recruiting data science expertise will help to ensure that deep-learning seismology reaches its full potential. Deep-learning processing of seismic data and incorporation of domain knowledge can lead to new capabilities and new insights across seismology. A. MASTIN/SCIENCE, TOP RIGHT: CARA HARWOOD/UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA-DAVIS/CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 MIDDLE RIGHT: JOHAN SWANEPOEL/SCIENCE SOURCE

Deep-learning seismology

Deep learning has been successfully applied to image denoising. In this study, we take one step forward by using deep learning to suppress random noise in poststack seismic data from the aspects of network architecture and training samples. On the one hand, poststack seismic data denoising mainly aims at 3-D seismic data. We designed an end-to-end 3-D denoising convolutional neural network (3-D-DnCNN) that takes raw 3-D cubes as input in order to better extract the features of the 3-D spatial structure of poststack seismic data. On the other hand, denoising images with deep learning require noisy–clean sample pairs for training. In the field of seismic data processing, researchers usually try their best to suppress noise by using complex processes that combine different methods, but clean labels of seismic data are not available. In addition, building training samples in field seismic data has become an interesting but challenging problem. Therefore, we propose a training sample selection method that contains a complex workflow to produce comparatively ideal training samples. Experiments in this study demonstrate that deep learning can directly learn the ability to denoise field seismic data from selected samples. Although the building of the training samples may occur through a complex process, the experimental results of synthetic seismic data and field seismic data show that the 3-D-DnCNN has learned the ability to suppress the Gaussian noise and super-Gaussian noise from different training samples. Moreover, the 3-D-DnCNN network has better denoising performance toward arc-like imaging noise. In addition, we adopt residual learning and batch normalization in order to accelerate the training speed. After network training is satisfactorily completed, its processing efficiency can be significantly higher than that of conventional denoising methods.

Poststack Seismic Data Denoising Based on 3-D Convolutional Neural Network

Compared with traditional seismic noise attenuation algorithms that depend on signal models and their corresponding prior assumptions, removing noise with a deep neural network is trained b...

Deep learning for denoising

We have developed an artificial neural network to estimate P-wave velocity models directly from prestack common-source gathers. Our network is composed of a fully connected layer set and a ...

Velocity model building in a crosswell acquisition geometry with image-trained artificial neural networks

In elastic reverse time migration (RTM), wavefield separation is an important step to remove crosstalk artifacts and improve imaging quality. State-of-the-art techniques for wavefield separ...

Isotropic elastic reverse time migration using the phase- and amplitude-corrected vector P- and S-wavefields

The physical basis, parameterization, and assumptions involved in root-mean-square (rms) velocity estimation have not significantly changed since they were first developed. However, these t...

Automatic velocity picking from semblances with a new deep-learning regression strategy: Comparison with a classification approach

We have implemented multiparameter full-waveform inversions (FWIs) in the framework of recurrent neural networks in elastic isotropic and transversely isotropic media. A staggered-grid velo...

Elastic isotropic and anisotropic full-waveform inversions using automatic differentiation for gradient calculations in a framework of recurrent neural networks

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