The oil palm tree is an ancient tropical plant that originated from West Africa. Palm oil has centuries׳ long use as food and medicine. This review covers the recent significant materials found in the literature on palm oil processing, refining, and use in frying especially in blends with other vegetable oils. Crude palm oil (CPO) is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis). The oil is rich in palmitic acid, β-carotene and vitamin E. CPO has been fractionated mainly into liquid palm olein and solid palm stearin in order to diversify its food applications. Palm oil is highly stable during frying especially due to the synergistic activity of β-carotene and tocotrienol. In recent years there has been a shift from the use of animal fats and hydrogenated vegetable oils in frying and other food applications. The use of naturally stable oils such as palm oil and composite oils like blends of palm oil and other fats and oils is practiced to ensure that maximum benefits are derived from the oils. Blending offers functional, nutritional and technical advantages, such as tailoring the oil to suit frying applications. The objective of this review is to combine and condense the body of research on the processing, characterization and use of palm oil especially in frying as well as suggest areas that need further research.

Palm oil: Processing, characterization and utilization in the food industry – A review

Thermal processing is an inevitable part of the processing and preparation of meat and meat products for human consumption. However, thermal processing techniques, both commercial and domestic, induce modifications in muscle proteins which can have implications for their digestibility. The nutritive value of muscle proteins is closely related to their digestibility in the gastrointestinal tract and is determined by the end products that it presents in the assimilable form (amino acids and small peptides) for the absorption. The present review examines how different thermal processing techniques, such as sous-vide, microwave, stewing, roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and steam cooking, affect the digestibility of muscle proteins in the gastrointestinal tract. By altering the functional and structural properties of muscle proteins, thermal processing has the potential to influence the digestibility negatively or positively, depending on the processing conditions. Thermal processes such as sous-vide can induce favourable changes, such as partial unfolding or exposure of cleavage sites, in muscle proteins and improve their digestibility whereas processes such as stewing and roasting can induce unfavourable changes, such as protein aggregation, severe oxidation, cross linking or increased disulfide (S-S) content and decrease the susceptibility of proteins during gastrointestinal digestion. The review examines how the underlying mechanisms of different processing conditions can be translated into higher or lower protein digestibility in detail. This review expands the current understanding of muscle protein digestion and generates knowledge that will be indispensable for optimizing the digestibility of thermally processed muscle foods for maximum nutritional benefits and optimal meal planning.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1541-4337.12802

Thermal processing implications on the digestibility of meat, fish and seafood proteins

Effect of domestic cooking methods on protein digestibility and mineral bioaccessibility of wild harvested adult edible insects

This study was designed to investigate the influence of boiling, baking, and frying on protein modification and in vitro digestibility of hairtail fillets. The boiled fillets among the three cooking methods showed lower carbonyl and NH2 content and sensory acceptance and higher digestibility, while the fried fillets showed higher carbonyl and NH2 contents and lower digestibility. The digestibility of boiled and baked fillets was less affected by cooking time. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the protein pattern in cooked fillets was clearly affected by the cooking method. Digestibility significantly correlated with NH2 (r ≤ −0.87, p

Influence of cooking methods on protein modification and in vitro digestibility of hairtail (Thichiurus lepturus) fillets

Effect of different cooking methods of rabbit meat on topographical changes, physicochemical characteristics, fatty acids profile, microbial quality and sensory attributes

Effect of boiling and frying on nutritional value and in vitro digestibility of rabbit meat were investigated. It was observed that boiling for 15 min increased the digestibility and nutritional value of rabbit meat, while boiling for 5 and 40 min led to their loss. Although, frying for 2 and 4 min produced an acceptable digestibility and nutritional value, the values were lower than those of the boiled rabbit meats. These results were supported by the analysis of amino acid and SDS-PAGE. Boiling or frying for longer time led to decrease in whiteness and protein content of rabbit meat. Micrographs showed that the meat myofibrils became clearer with the increase in boiling time, but a fuzzier surface appeared with the increase in frying time. From these results, it was concluded that a proper boiling or frying time is necessary to acquire a nutritious and high quality rabbit meat.

	Key words: Rabbit meat, boiling, frying, amino acid, protein, essential amino acid index (EAAI).

/pdf/effect-of-boiling-and-frying-on-nutritional-value-and-in-smd01v1tvj.pdf

Effect of boiling and frying on nutritional value and in vitro digestibility of rabbit meat

Digital image feature of meat was correlated with a standard sensory color grade and applied this method to analyze the sensory color of chilled pork during its storage. Regression indicated that a multivariable regression was superior to a unitary quadratic. Verification test showed that the optimized function from multivariable regression was significant (P < 0.00001) reliability. The obtained multivariable function was adopted to calculate the grade change of loin, ham and Boston butt during their cold storage (4 ± 1C) for 144 h. Results demonstrated that the pork grade was evaluated accurately by the function. The calculated grade from the function showed that the sensory grade of the loin decreased more obviously than those of the Boston butt and the loin; the pork category influenced pork color evaluation greatly. These results suggested that the image analysis technology was feasible to be used to assess pork color.



Practical Applications

The results of this work have practical applications in off-line quality analysis and safety control of the chilled pork and other meats. In addition, the obtained multivariable function may be used in online quality monitoring during meat processing or transporting under chilled state.

Meat Sensory Color Grade: Mathematical Simulation and Its Application in Quality Analysis of Chilled Pork

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Effect of boiling and frying on nutritional value and in vitro digestibility of rabbit meat

Meat Sensory Color Grade: Mathematical Simulation and Its Application in Quality Analysis of Chilled Pork