Mycotoxins are toxic substances that can infect many foods with carcinogenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects. Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs causes diseases worldwide. The major classes of mycotoxins that are of the greatest agroeconomic importance are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, and patulin. Thus, in order to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of foods, many control approaches are used. Prevention, detoxification, and decontamination of mycotoxins can contribute in this purpose in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. Therefore, the purpose of the review is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the occurrence of main mycotoxins in many types of important agricultural products, as well as the methods of inactivation and detoxification of foods from mycotoxins in order to reduce or fully eliminate them.

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Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods.

A review of cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives as antibacterial agents.

The study of fungal species evolved radically with the development of molecular techniques and produced new evidence to understand specific fungal mechanisms such as the production of toxic secondary metabolites. Taking advantage of these technologies to improve food safety, the molecular study of toxinogenic species can help elucidate the mechanisms underlying toxin production and enable the development of new effective strategies to control fungal toxicity. Numerous studies have been made on genes involved in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production, one of the most hazardous carcinogenic toxins for humans and animals. The current review presents the roles of these different genes and their possible impact on AFB1 production. We focus on the toxinogenic strains Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, primary contaminants and major producers of AFB1 in crops. However, genetic reports on A. nidulans are also included because of the capacity of this fungus to produce sterigmatocystin, the penultimate stable metabolite during AFB1 production. The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of the AFB1 enzymatic biosynthesis pathway and its link with the genes belonging to the AFB1 cluster. It also aims to illustrate the role of global environmental factors on aflatoxin production and the recent data that demonstrate an interconnection between genes regulated by these environmental signals and aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway.

Aflatoxin Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation: A Review.

Food industries are facing ry faces a great challenge due to contamination of food products with different microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites etc. These microbes deteriorate food items both by producing different toxins during pre and post-harvest processing. They not only deteriorate food but also contaminate them with different toxins. Mycotoxins are one of theamong most potent and well-studied toxic food contaminant of fungal origin causing severe health hazard to human health hazard. UseApplication of synthetic chemicals as food preservatives in food system pose a real scourge in the present scenario is being discouraged due to their bio-incompatibility, and non-biodegradability and environmental non-sustainability. Therefore, plant based antimicrobials including essential oils have developed cumulative interest come up as potential replacement alternative of these popular synthetic preservatives because of their ecofriendly nature and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status. However, the practical Worldwide utilization of essential oils as plant based and efficient antimicrobial in the food industry is challenging due to their volatile nature, less solubility and high instability. The recent application of different delivery strategies viz. nanoencapsulation, active packaging and polymer based coating are effectively addressed these challenges and improve the bioefficacy as well as controlled release of essential oils. This challenge can be overcome by nanoencapsulation. Nanoencapsulation is an interesting and emerging technique that raises the physico-chemical properties, as well as slow release of essential oils for improving food safety. This article provides an detailed overview on essential oils for preservation of stored foods against bacteria, fungi and mycotoxins of antimicrobial plant based food preservatives, their along with specialized mechanismmode of action and technological advancement by using different delivery systems for their effective application in food and agricultural industries smart green preservative.in their application for food preservation.

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Essential Oils and Their Application in Food Safety

Preventing food from fungal infestation has become a cause of great concern as food safety is of particular importance to public health globally. Recently International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in its 2016 press release has urged to take action against widespread mycotoxin contamination in developing countries. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a group B trichothecene mycotoxin, produced by common field pathogens such as Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum, and reported to be the predominant contaminant of food commodities. At present, no detailed/systematic review regarding the global occurrence of DON in various food and grain samples is available in the literature. Considering DON's cosmopolitan behavior and toxicological manifestations, the present review summarizes the region-wise reports and surveys conducted across the globe during the last decade, on the occurrence of DON in the food commodities intended for human consumption. Studies conducted on DON metabolites either in food, urine or blood samples from humans have also been reviewed. The present review indicates that the current exposure levels of DON might pose a health risk for the consumers, especially in growing children, necessitating to take vigilant steps to guarantee food safety.

Global occurrence of deoxynivalenol in food commodities and exposure risk assessment in humans in the last decade: a survey.

Because of global warming and changes in farming systems, Fusarium head blight has gradually spread towards high-latitude regions such as Northwestern China. A survey was conducted to assess the prevalence and concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat harvested during 2013 from the Shaanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, and Xinjiang provinces in China. DON concentration in 181 wheat samples was analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with ultraviolet detection. Of the wheat samples, 82.9% were contaminated with DON, with a mean DON concentration of 500 μg/kg. According to the Chinese standard limits for DON, 10% of the positive samples were above the maximum limit of 1000 μg/kg. Regions with higher humidity showed higher levels of DON in the wheat samples. These results show the necessity of raising awareness of DON contamination in people from Northwestern China to protect their health from the risk of exposure to DON.

Deoxynivalenol in wheat from the Northwestern region in China.

Aflatoxin is a carcinogenic secondary metabolite produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which can seriously endanger the health of humans and animals. Oxidative stress is a common defense response, and it is known that reactive oxygen species (ROS) can induce the synthesis of a series of secondary metabolites, including aflatoxin. By using mutants lacking the afap 1 gene, the role of afap1 gene in oxidative stress and aflatoxin synthesis was assessed. The growth of the mutant strains was significantly inhibited by the increase in the concentration of H2O2, inhibition was complete at 40mmol/l. However, in the quantitative analysis by HPLC, the concentration of AFB1 increased with the increased H2O2 until 10mmol/l. Following an analysis based on the information provided by the NCBI BLAST analysis, it was assumed that Afap1, a basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factor, was associated with the oxidative stress in this fungus. Treatment with 5mmol/l H2O2 completely inhibited the growth of the mutant strains in afap 1 but did not affect the growth of the CA14PTs strain (non-mutant strain). In addition, the concentration of AFB1 in the mutant strains was approximately ¼ of that observed in the CA14PTs strain. These results suggested that Afap1 plays a key role in the regulation of oxidative stress and aflatoxin production in A. flavus.

The bZIP transcription factor Afap1 mediates the oxidative stress response and aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus

Limited survey of deoxynivalenol in wheat from different crop rotation fields in Yangtze-Huaihe river basin region of China

Aflatoxins (AFs) contamination in food and feed causes health hazards to both humans and animals. Among the Aspergillus species, Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2. AFB1 is known for its hepatotoxic, teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic nature towards humans and animals. Some A. flavus strains do not produce aflatoxins and are termed as atoxigenic strains. A. flavus also produces an indole-tetramic acid called cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). As aflatoxin contamination can’t be prevented totally, numerous reduction mechanisms have been developed. Applications of atoxigenic A. flavus strains for biocontrol have proved to be a promising method. Hence, it is vital to distinguish A. flavus into toxigenic and atoxigenic strains, for biocontrol application. The atoxigenic strains need to be carefully selected, as the strain isolated and used in the same niche proves effective. The present review analyses the different available methods like cultural, molecular, and analytical methods to identify toxigenic and atoxigenic A. flavus and their precision for the purpose of selecting them as biocontrol agents. This review also highlights the role of CPA, its biosynthetic gene cluster and the methods to detect it and also point out some works on which, atoxigenic strains that also could reduce CPA contaminations. Overall these methods can pave a way to isolate atoxigenic A. flavus free from AFs and CPA, as potential biocontrol agents to be used.

Recent Developments in the Screening of Atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus towards Aflatoxin Biocontrol

The invention discloses an aspergillus flavus strain producing no aflatoxin. The aspergillus flavus strain producing no aflatoxin, provided by the invention, is specifically aspergillus flavus GZ-17; the preservation number of the aspergillus flavus strain in the general microbiology center of the China Committee for Culture Collection of Microorganisms is CGMCC No.8050. Experimental results show that the aspergillus flavus strain GZ-17 provided by the invention plays a role in restraining the poison production of the aspergillus flavus strain producing the aflatoxin; when the concentration ratio of the strain to a toxic producing fungus spore is 105: 105, the poison production restrained ratio of bacterium producing no poison to the bacterium producing poison is nearly 96%. The strain has important significance for restraining the infection of the aspergillus flavus producing poison to agricultural products and reducing the aflatoxin pollution in the agricultural products.

Aspergillus flavus producing no aflatoxin and application thereof

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