Although soil compaction in the field may benefit or inhibit the growth of plants, the harmful effects are much more common. This paper emphasizes the deleterious effects of predominantly high levels of soil compaction on plant growth and yield. High levels of soil compaction are common in heavily used recreation areas, construction sites, urban areas, timber harvesting sites, fruit orchards, agroforestry systems and tree nurseries. Compaction can occur naturally by settling or slumping of soil or may be induced by tillage tools, heavy machinery, pedestrian traffic, trampling by animals and fire. Compaction typically alters soil structure and hydrology by increasing soil bulk density; breaking down soil aggregates; decreasing soil porosity, aeration and infiltration capacity; and by increasing soil strength, water runoff and soil erosion. Appreciable compaction of soil leads to physiological dysfunctions in plants. Often, but not always, reduced water absorption and leaf water deficits develop. S...

Soil Compaction and Growth of Woody Plants

Quantification of compaction effects on soil physical properties and crop growth

Soil compaction caused by vehicular traffic adversely affects key soil functions and ecosystem services that soils provide. Although compaction is a well-recognized problem, it remains challenging to quantify the economic and ecological costs of compaction. The mechanization in agriculture has resulted in a steady increase in weight of farm vehicles. It is reasonable to assume that this has exacerbated soil compaction, but there is little quantitative knowledge on the development of compaction levels in arable soils. To quantify these trends, we use historical records of harvester and tractor weights to simulate how the weight increase has changed soil stresses and bulk density of arable soil, and to predict impacts on the mechanical resistance for root growth and on soil hydraulic properties. Our simulations show a clear increase in soil stress levels with higher bulk density and mechanical penetration resistance, and a decrease in soil hydraulic conductivity in agreement with available data. We show that increased mechanical resistance has resulted in decreased root elongation rates and consequently prolonged the time required for roots to reach a certain soil depth. The historical changes of compaction levels and associated limitations on root elongation rates coincide with a stagnation in crop yields in the 1990s observed for cereals in many countries. Our calculations illustrate that the historical increase in compaction levels has drastically decreased saturated hydraulic conductivity and water storage capacity of subsoils. We speculate that this has contributed to the increase in the incidence and severity of flood events during recent decades in Europe. Finally, we take Sweden as an example and estimate annual compaction costs due to agricultural productivity loss and flooding damage of several hundred M€ yr−1 for Sweden. Considering the continuation of upwards trends in the average weight of farm machinery and the projected increase in extreme weather events, the costs of soil compaction are likely to escalate. The study highlights that we have likely exceeded the acceptable loads, and that future agricultural operations must consider the inherent mechanical limit of soil.

Historical increase in agricultural machinery weights enhanced soil stress levels and adversely affected soil functioning

Soil structure affects microbial activity and thus influences greenhouse gas production and exchange in soil. Structure is variable and increasingly vulnerable to compaction and erosion damage as agriculture intensifies and climate changes. Few studies have specifically related the impact of structure and its variability to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over a wide range of soils and management treatments. The objective of this study was to draw from research in Scotland, Japan and New Zealand, which examined how soil structures affected by wheel compaction, animal trampling, tillage and land-use change influence GHG emissions in order to help identify key controlling properties. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the main focus, though carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitric oxide (NO) are included. Gas emissions were measured by using static chambers in the field or incubated intact cores. Poor structure, measured as small relative gas diffusivities and air permeabilities, restricted aeration, resulting in N2O emission or consumption dependent on mineral nitrogen contents. Structural damage (identifiable using the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure) was especially important near the soil surface where microsites of microbial activity were exposed and aeration was impaired. Moist, well-aerated soils favoured CH4 oxidation and CO2 exchange. N2O emissions were not necessarily increased in anaerobic soils because of possible N2O consumption and microbial adaptation. Soil matric potential, volumetric water content, relative diffusivity, air permeability and water-filled pore space are relevant indicators for N2O and CH4 flux and aeration status. As pore continuity and size are so relevant, pore-scale models are likely to have an increasing role in understanding mechanisms of GHG production, transport and release.

Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions: a synthesis of 20 years of experimentation

Physiological ecology of natural regeneration of harvested and disturbed forest stands: implications for forest management

Summary Important indicators of soil aeration status, such as air-filled porosity, air permeability, relative gas diffusion coefficient, soil air composition, oxygen availability (ODR) and redox potential (Eh) are presented. Relationships among these indicators and techniques of measurement are discussed. Field and laboratory experimentation is described. Compaction is shown to restrict aeration and thereby impair crop growth. Examples are given of field experiments, generally involving cereals, with compaction treatments applied either before sowing to simulate unalleviated previous compacton by harvest machinery or during seedbed preparation. Crops, particularly winter crops, are most vulnerable in wet, warm periods shortly after sowing or fertilizer application. Impaired crop growth resulting from compaction is attributed to the interacting effects of poor aeration and mechanical impedance. Poor aeration can also result in gaseous losses of plant-available nitrogen. Experimental evidence of recovery from compaction in undisturbed soils is also presented. Subject areas requiring further research efforts are identified.

Effects of compaction on soil aeration properties.

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Effects of compaction on soil aeration properties.