The nature and source of cosmic rays has been at the core of particle astrophysics since their discovery almost a century ago. The cosmic ray spectrum is best described by a broken power law, and can be better understood as three distinct parts. Theory holds that cosmic rays up to ∼1015 eV those below the“knee” or steepening in the spectrum are produced in the shocks of supernova remnants. Direct detection of cosmic rays produced in supernova remnant shocks is impossible, however, as cosmic rays below ∼1018 eV are deflected by the Galactic magnetic field and cannot be traced back to their origins. If high energy hadrons are produced within the immediate environment of a supernova remnant, collisions will occur within the surrounding medium. As a result, pion production and subsequent decay will give rise to very high energy gamma rays (E >100 GeV). Since these gamma rays will not interact with any magnetic field, they can be traced back to their point of origin. Thus, Atmospheric Cherenkov Detectors like VERITAS, which have the capability to detect very high energy gamma rays via their interaction with our atmosphere, provide us the means of directly testing the theory of the origin of cosmic rays in supernova remnants. Observations of 13 supernovae made with the VERITAS instrument are presented herein, including 5 individually targeted remnants and 8 remnants within the VERITAS Cygnus region Sky Survey. The observations provide detections of two known VHE remnants (Cassiopeia A and the Crab Nebula), and meaningful flux limits on the remainder. Comparison of these results to both hadronicand leptonic-origin emission models is carried out.

Observations of Very High Energy Gamma-Ray Emission from Supernova Remnants with VERITAS

Data-driven definition and modelling of plant growth

Some models of gamma-ray bursts suggest that their spectrum may extend into the energy range above 10 GeV, i.e. above energies accessible with CGRO. Data taken with the HEGRA extensive air shower array are used to search for very high energetic gamma-ray burst counterparts above 1 TeV. First results from the search for BATSE correlated and BATSE independent bursts are presented.

Search for gamma-ray bursts with energies above 1 TEV

Models of the scintillator and wide-angle air Cherenkov (AIROBICC) arrays of the HEGRA experiment are described here. Their response to extensive air showers generated by cosmic rays in the 10 to 1000 TeV range has been assessed using a detailed Monte Carlo simulation of air shower development and associated Cherenkov emission. Protons, γ-rays and oxygen and iron nuclei have been considered as primary particles. For both arrays, the angular resolution as determined from the Monte Carlo simulation is compared with experimental data. Shower size N e can be reconstructed from the scintillator signals with an error ranging from 10% ( N e = 2 × 10 5 ) to 35% ( N e = 3 × 10 3 ). The energy threshold of AIROBICC is 14 TeV for primary gammas and 27 TeV for protons and an angular resolution of 0.25° can be obtained. The measurement of the Cherenkov light at 90 m from the shower core provides an accurate determination of primary energy E 0 as far as the nature of the primary particle is known. For gammas an error in the energy prediction ranging from 8% ( E 0 = 5 × 10 14 eV) to 15% ( E 0 = 2 × 10 13 eV) is achieved. This detector is therefore a powerful tool for γ-ray astronomy.

Monte Carlo simulation of the HEGRA cosmic ray detector performance

The Modular Automated Crop Array Online System (MACARONS) is a scalable, customisable and open-sourced platform designed for plant care, monitoring, and transportation. It offers specific dosing for individual plants, automated data logging of temperature, humidity, and images, and custom behaviours programmable in Python. Monitoring and control of the system is achieved through a web-interface. The system was validated by autonomously caring for five lettuce plants over a five-week period. This was done indoors under artificial lighting and uncontrolled ambient conditions. The system is estimated to perform the tasks required 30% faster than a human operator and can handle payloads of up to 5 kg with a maximum footprint of 750 mm × 500 mm. The validated system supports 12 payloads and can be easily scaled to accommodate more. The designs are released and meets the requirements of CERN-OSH-W, which includes step-by-step graphical build instructions and can be built at a cost of GBP 2241.72 (USD 2793.82). The system aims to provide cost-effective automation to reduce labour costs and provide precise control of irrigation and nutrients. The current system is limited by the dosing time and the space-use efficiency. We provided future directions and modifications that can be made to address this. 

Design and validation of an open-sourced automation system for vertical farming

Status and Upgrade of the HEGRA Air Shower Experiment at La Palma

Lettuce modelling for growth control in precision agriculture

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Status and Upgrade of the HEGRA Air Shower Experiment at La Palma

Lettuce modelling for growth control in precision agriculture