Much of the contemporary literature on the utility of international sanctions approaches the apparent riddle of why sanctions are embraced so eagerly when they are supposedly such an “ineffective” tool of statecraft by focusing on the instrumental and rational purposes of sanctions. As a result, one purpose that does not always lend itself to a rational means-end calculus—the purpose of punishment—tends to be overlooked or, more commonly, dismissed outright. This article explores punishment as both a useful and an effective purpose of international sanctions. It argues not only that sanctions should be distinguished from other forms of hurtful statecraft but also that they are a form of “international punishment” for wrongdoing, despite the difficulties of applying the term “punishment” in the context of international relations. The article then examines the purposes of punishment and reveals that only some are understandable when a model of means-end rationality is used, suggesting that the element of the nonrational also plays an important role in international sanctions. The argument is then applied to the case of U.S. sanctions imposed after the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan to demonstrate the different purposes of punishment at work in this case. The article concludes that just as we cannot understand punishment as a purposive human activity solely by reference to a rational model of a means to a clearly delineated end, so too we cannot entirely understand sanctions as a form of international punishment by an attachment to a rational model of policy behavior. However, some forms of punishment are exceedingly effective, and this may explain why sanctions continue to be a popular instrument of statecraft.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0020818300032926

International sanctions as international punishment

Acknowledgements Part I. Justifying Punishment: Introduction: a different perspective on criminal justice 1. The problem of punishment and the restorative alternative 2. Some retributivist themes Part II. Responding to Wrongdoing: 3. Responsibility, reactive attitudes and the right to be punished 4. Non-retributive dialogue 5. The cycle of blame and apology Part III. The Apology Ritual: 6. Restorative justice and state condemnation of crime 7. Institutional blame and apology 8. The apology ritual and its rivals Bibliography Index.

The Apology Ritual: A Philosophical Theory of Punishment

A place in the world

https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2042&context=faculty_scholarship

The Right and the Reasonable

The effectiveness of health education is ultimately determined by whether it is implemented, and how it is implemented. Although a given health education innovation may be designed and experimentally assessed to promote well-being with some measure of effectiveness and efficiency, the actual impact of the innovation will depend upon the manner in which it is disseminated, initiated, and maintained. The implementation of health education programs in schools or elsewhere is a function of the types of innovations available, certain characteristics of those innovations that influence their use, and the manner in which the innovations are brought into practice. This paper has been prepared to review, synthesize, and apply current and relevant information about educational innovations and social change to provide a conceptual base for the design, execution, and analysis of efforts to implement health education in schools. The American system of public and private schools could be an agent vitally important to the realization of a second public health revolution. Indeed, in a democratic society, the implementation of health education in schools seems a condition necessary for such a revolution. By analyzing and learning from our own health education efforts, as well as the efforts of those experienced with implementing other types of educational innovations in schools, we might ensure that future populations are informed sufficiently about factors that influence their health and well-being.

Implementing Comprehensive Health Education: Educational Innovations and Social Change:

The Rise of the Public Schools

The Ethics of Punishment

Education and Social Change

Christian education in a secular society

Society, Schools and Progress in the U.S.A.

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