The usage of electric vehicles (EV) has been increasing over the last few years due to a rise in fossil fuel prices and the rate of increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. EV-charging stations are powered by existing utility power grid systems, increasing the stress on the utility grid and the load demand at the distribution side. DC grid-based EV charging is more efficient than AC distribution because of its higher reliability, power conversion efficiency, simple interfacing with renewable energy sources (RESs), and integration of energy storage units (ESU). RES-generated power storage in local ESU is an alternative solution for managing the utility grid demand. In addition, to maintain the EV charging demand at the microgrid levels, energy management and control strategies must carefully power the EV battery charging unit. In addition, charging stations require dedicated converter topologies, control strategies, and need to follow set levels and standards. Based on EV, ESU, and RES accessibility, different types of microgrid architecture and control strategies are used to ensure optimum operation at the EV-charging point. Based on the above said merits, this review paper presents different RES-connected architecture and control strategies used in EV-charging stations. It highlights the importance of different charging station architectures with current power converter topologies proposed in the literature. In addition, a comparison of microgrid-based charging station architecture with its energy management, control strategies, and charging converter controls are also presented. The different levels and types of charging stations used for EV charging, in addition to controls and connectors used, are also discussed. An experiment-based energy management strategy was developed to control power flow among the available sources and charging terminals for the effective utilization of generated renewable power. The main motive of the EMS and its control is to maximize the usage of RES consumption. This review also provides the challenges and opportunities in EV-charging, and parameters in selecting appropriate charging stations.

Electric Vehicles Charging Stations’ Architectures, Criteria, Power Converters, and Control Strategies in Microgrids

The current climatic scenario requires the use of innovative solutions to increase the production of electricity from renewable energy sources. Multilevel Power Inverters are a promising solution to improve the penetration of renewable energy sources into the electrical grid. Moreover, the performance of MPIs is a function of the modulation strategy employed and of its features (modulation index and switching frequency). This paper presents an extended and experimental analysis of three-phase five-level Cascaded H-Bridges Multilevel Inverter performance in terms of efficiency and harmonic content considering several MC PWM modulation strategies. In detail, the CHBMI performance is analyzed by varying the modulation index and the switching frequency. For control purposes, the NI System On Module sbRIO-9651 control board, a dedicated FPGA-based control board for power electronics and drive applications programmable in the LabVIEW environment, is used. The paper describes the modulation strategies implementation, the test bench set-up, and the experimental investigations carried out. The results obtained in terms of Total Harmonic Distorsion (THD) and efficiency are analyzed, compared, and discussed.

/pdf/switching-frequency-effects-on-the-efficiency-and-harmonic-ql5jz6gs.pdf

Switching Frequency Effects on the Efficiency and Harmonic Distortion in a Three-Phase Five-Level CHBMI Prototype with Multicarrier PWM Schemes: Experimental Analysis

In industries, the demand for multi-phase Multi-Level Inverters (MLIs) increases as they have reduced switching loss, Common Mode Voltage (CMV) and voltage stress across switches. The Multi-Carrier PWM (MCPWM) and Space Vector Modulation (SVM) techniques are predominantly used for controlling the inverter. This paper discusses various PWM techniques like PD, POD, APOD, IC, PSC, VFC PWM and SVM (OFV and SVM with Zero CMV) for 5-phase NPC 3L Inverter. Each PWM techniques gives better results in voltage THD/ dc-link balancing/ CMV. The SVM is significant for obtaining better performances in all these aspects. The Optimized Five Vector (OFV) which has 113 vectors is preferred than normal SVM as it has inequality relationship between 5-phase voltages. Though, OFV gives better results in terms of higher output voltage and lower NPF, the CMV is not eliminated. To eliminate CMV, 51 vectors that generates Zero CMV is selected to drive the inverter where output voltage and NPF is also improved. However, due to the presence of x-y components the distortion is present. The vectors are further reduced to 31 where the x-y components are neglected to reduce the distortion is proposed in this paper. The performance of the inverter drive is enhanced by applying proposed SVM with 31 vectors. The NPF, CMV and losses are calculated for all PWM techniques, also the THD performances of an inverter is found for various techniques. The simulation is carried out for all PWM techniques and the results are verified by experimental results. 

/pdf/performance-analysis-of-multi-carrier-pwm-and-space-vector-20uacjto.pdf

Performance Analysis of Multi-Carrier PWM and Space Vector Modulation Techniques for Five-Phase Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped Inverter

In three-phase unbalanced systems, where the circulation of zero sequence current is necessary, four-leg converters provide a neutral connection for single-phase or other unbalanced loads typically utilized in three-phase distribution systems. In addition, control of the magnitude and phase of the zero-sequence voltage and/or current are also achieved using four-leg power converters. However, even when four-leg converters have become very important in several fields as for instance, four-leg microgrids and aerospace applications, a comprehensive review of the converter topologies, control methods, modulation methods and output filters have not been hitherto published. In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art of four-leg converters is presented, based on the selection of over 400 papers published in journals and conferences, identifying mature and incipient topologies, modulation strategies, control schemes and applications. Each topic presented in this work is thoroughly discussed and reviewed, analyzing characteristics, implementation issues, and reported advantages and disadvantages to provide a comprehensive overview of the current research and future challenges in four-leg converters. The most important applications of four-leg converters are also discussed in this work, including stand-alone power supply, uninterruptible power supplies, grid-connected 4-leg inverters, ground power units for aerospace applications, active filtering for power quality enhancement, cooperative control of 4-leg converters for micro-grid applications, among others. Finally, future work and conclusions are highlighted in this paper. 

An Overview of Four-Leg Converters: Topologies, Modulations, Control and Applications

Multi-level inverters (MLIs) have been widely used in recent years due to their various advantages in industrial and grid-connected applications. Traditional MLI topologies are being hampered by the rapid surge of renewable energy systems (RES) as a result of performance difficulties such as poor power reliability, an economically unviable structure, and a lack of efficiency. These difficulties are due to the traditional MLI topologies’ inability to keep up with the increasing demand for RES. Because of concerns about performance and limitations posed by classic MLI topologies, researchers have found themselves driven to the idea of building innovative hybrid MLI topologies. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of multilevel inverter systems that are wired into the main power supply. Grid-connected inverter types and their configurations are discussed in depth in this review. Diverse multi-level inverter topologies, as well as the different approaches, are divided into various categories and discussed in depth. Additionally, a number of control reference frames for inverters were brought forward for discussion. Furthermore, different inverter control strategies were investigated, followed by a tabular summary of recent developments in the inverter-related literature for the convenience of the readers. Moreover, the recently proposed grid-connected multi-level inverter systems were discussed including their findings and innovations. In conclusion, a brief description of the study’s scope was offered and research directions for future studies were provided.

/pdf/a-comprehensive-review-on-multilevel-inverters-for-grid-tied-1x76m2m9.pdf

A Comprehensive Review on Multilevel Inverters for Grid-Tied System Applications

The Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) Multi-Level Inverters (MLI) have been ruling the power electronics industries for the past two decades. The Multi-Carrier Pulse Width Modulation (MCPWM) is common PWM techniques which are widely used in NPC-MLI applications. However, MCPWM is not having a good impact on the balancing of DC-link voltages, Common Mode Voltage (CMV) and limiting the Total Harmonics Distortion (THD). The Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) technique is introduced for reducing the THD, however all the switching angles should be maintained less than $\pi $ /2 to keep the eliminated harmonics at constant level which narrows down the modulation index range. Hence, in recent days Space Vector Modulation (SVM) technique is widely used in NPC-MLI, which gives better DC-link voltage balancing, self-neutral point balancing, near-zero CMV reduction, better-quality harmonics profile and switching loss minimization. Hence, it is a preferred solution for the majority of electrical conversion applications such as electric traction, high power industrial drives, renewable power generation, and grid-connected inverters, etc. The paper gives a comprehensive review of the SVM for NPC-MLI. First, this paper deliberates the state of art for two-level SVM and extends it to three-level (3L) SVM. Also compares the 3L SVM performance with other MCPWM techniques. Followed by the various modified MLI SVM techniques in terms of their implementations, DC-link capacitor balancing, and reduction of CMV. Further, the review of MLI SVM is widened to open-end winding Inverters and multiphase MLIs. The final part of this paper discussed the future trends and research directions on MLI SVM techniques and its applications.

/pdf/a-comprehensive-review-on-space-vector-modulation-techniques-4knkky1lpu.pdf

A Comprehensive Review on Space Vector Modulation Techniques for Neutral Point Clamped Multi-Level Inverters

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A Comprehensive Review on Space Vector Modulation Techniques for Neutral Point Clamped Multi-Level Inverters