Multiple factors over the lifetime of an individual, including diet, geography, and physiologic state, will influence the microbial communities within the primate gut. To determine the source of variation in the composition of the microbiota within and among species, we investigated the distal gut microbial communities harbored by great apes, as present in fecal samples recovered within their native ranges. We found that the branching order of host-species phylogenies based on the composition of these microbial communities is completely congruent with the known relationships of the hosts. Although the gut is initially and continuously seeded by bacteria that are acquired from external sources, we establish that over evolutionary timescales, the composition of the gut microbiota among great ape species is phylogenetically conserved and has diverged in a manner consistent with vertical inheritance.

/pdf/evolutionary-relationships-of-wild-hominids-recapitulated-by-34slhuuveg.pdf

Evolutionary relationships of wild hominids recapitulated by gut microbial communities

Plasmodium falciparum is the most prevalent and lethal of the malaria parasites infecting humans, yet the origin and evolutionary history of this important pathogen remain controversial. Here we develop a single-genome amplification strategy to identify and characterize Plasmodium spp. DNA sequences in faecal samples from wild-living apes. Among nearly 3,000 specimens collected from field sites throughout central Africa, we found Plasmodium infection in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), but not in eastern gorillas (Gorilla beringei) or bonobos (Pan paniscus). Ape plasmodial infections were highly prevalent, widely distributed and almost always made up of mixed parasite species. Analysis of more than 1,100 mitochondrial, apicoplast and nuclear gene sequences from chimpanzees and gorillas revealed that 99% grouped within one of six host-specific lineages representing distinct Plasmodium species within the subgenus Laverania. One of these from western gorillas comprised parasites that were nearly identical to P. falciparum. In phylogenetic analyses of full-length mitochondrial sequences, human P. falciparum formed a monophyletic lineage within the gorilla parasite radiation. These findings indicate that P. falciparum is of gorilla origin and not of chimpanzee, bonobo or ancient human origin. The evolutionary origin of Plasmodium falciparum, the most prevalent and lethal of the malaria parasites infecting humans, is much debated. Genetic analysis of thousands of fecal samples from wild-living African apes show that the parasites found in the western gorillas — rather than those of chimpanzees or bonobos — are most closely related to the human parasite. The data suggest that all extant human strains of the parasite evolved from a single host transfer event. The new findings are also relevant to the current antimalaria campaign, as they point to potential Plasmodium reservoirs in apes. The evolutionary origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has been much debated. Genetic analysis of a large number of faecal samples from wild-living African apes now shows that Plasmodium parasites from Western gorillas are most closely related to the human parasite. The data suggest that human P. falciparum evolved from a gorilla parasite after a single host transfer event.

/pdf/origin-of-the-human-malaria-parasite-plasmodium-falciparum-2ixpdkqnpj.pdf

Origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in gorillas

Hantaviruses are a major class of zoonotic pathogens and cause a variety of severe diseases in humans. For most of the last 50 years rodents have been considered to be the primary hosts of hantaviruses, with hantavirus evolution thought to reflect a process of virus-rodent co-divergence over a time-scale of millions of years, with occasional spill-over into humans. However, recent discoveries have revealed that hantaviruses infect a more diverse range of mammalian hosts, particularly Chiroptera (bats) and Soricomorpha (moles and shrews), and that cross-species transmission at multiple scales has played an important role in hantavirus evolution. As a consequence, the evolution and emergence of hantaviruses is more complex than previously anticipated, and may serve as a realistic model for other viral groups.

The Evolution and Emergence of RNA Viruses

/pdf/origin-of-the-human-malaria-parasite-plasmodium-falciparum-4sm409xpl9.pdf

Early in the co-evolution of plant-animal relationships, some arthropod species began to utilize the chemical defences of plants to protect themselves from their own predators and parasites. It is likely, therefore, that the origins of herbal medicine have their roots deep within the animal kingdom. From prehistoric times man has looked to wild and domestic animals for sources of herbal remedies. Both folklore and living examples provide accounts of how medicinal plants were obtained by observing the behaviour of animals. Animals too learn about the details of self-medication by watching each other. To date, perhaps the most striking scientific studies of animal self-medication have been made on the African great apes. The great ape diet is often rich in plants containing secondary compounds of non-nutritional, sometimes toxic, value that suggest medicinal benefit from their ingestion. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), bonobos (Pan paniscus) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) are known to swallow whole and defecate intact leaves. The habit has been shown to be a physical means of purging intestinal parasites. Chimpanzees and man co-existing in sub-Saharan Africa are also known to ingest the bitter pith of Vernonia amygdalina for the control of intestinal nematode infections. Phytochemical studies have demonstrated a wide array of biologically-active properties in this medicinal plant species. In light of the growing resistance of parasites and pathogens to synthetic drugs, the study of animal self-medication and ethno-medicine offers a novel line of investigation to provide ecologically-sound methods for the treatment of parasites using plant-based medicines in populations and their livestock living in the tropics.

/pdf/animal-self-medication-and-ethno-medicine-exploration-and-2cvpcwtz19.pdf

Animal self-medication and ethno-medicine: exploration and exploitation of the medicinal properties of plants

Identifying microbial pathogens with zoonotic potential in wild-living primates can be important to human health, as evidenced by human immunodeficiency viruses types 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and Ebola virus. Simian foamy viruses (SFVs) are ancient retroviruses that infect Old and New World monkeys and apes. Although not known to cause disease, these viruses are of public health interest because they have the potential to infect humans and thus provide a more general indication of zoonotic exposure risks. Surprisingly, no information exists concerning the prevalence, geographic distribution, and genetic diversity of SFVs in wild-living monkeys and apes. Here, we report the first comprehensive survey of SFVcpz infection in free-ranging chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) using newly developed, fecal-based assays. Chimpanzee fecal samples (n = 724) were collected at 25 field sites throughout equatorial Africa and tested for SFVcpz-specific antibodies (n = 706) or viral nucleic acids (n = 392). SFVcpz infection was documented at all field sites, with prevalence rates ranging from 44% to 100%. In two habituated communities, adult chimpanzees had significantly higher SFVcpz infection rates than infants and juveniles, indicating predominantly horizontal rather than vertical transmission routes. Some chimpanzees were co-infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz); however, there was no evidence that SFVcpz and SIVcpz were epidemiologically linked. SFVcpz nucleic acids were recovered from 177 fecal samples, all of which contained SFVcpz RNA and not DNA. Phylogenetic analysis of partial gag (616 bp), pol-RT (717 bp), and pol-IN (425 bp) sequences identified a diverse group of viruses, which could be subdivided into four distinct SFVcpz lineages according to their chimpanzee subspecies of origin. Within these lineages, there was evidence of frequent superinfection and viral recombination. One chimpanzee was infected by a foamy virus from a Cercopithecus monkey species, indicating cross-species transmission of SFVs in the wild. These data indicate that SFVcpz (i) is widely distributed among all chimpanzee subspecies; (ii) is shed in fecal samples as viral RNA; (iii) is transmitted predominantly by horizontal routes; (iv) is prone to superinfection and recombination; (v) has co-evolved with its natural host; and (vi) represents a sensitive marker of population structure that may be useful for chimpanzee taxonomy and conservation strategies.

http://ngogochimpanzeeproject.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Liu-et-al.-2008.pdf

Molecular ecology and natural history of Simian foamy virus infection in wild-living chimpanzees

Home range area and habitat utilization by translocated black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis were studied at Sweetwaters Rhino Sanctuary in the Laikipia district of Kenya. Home ranges were estimated from sightings and tracking data; home range area was very variable between individuals (range 2.25‐14.39 km 2 , minimum convex polygons), and was independent of age or sex. Groups of rhinoceros shared common home ranges, with little or no overlap between groups; each group consisted of one adult male, one or more adult females and their calves, and sometimes immature animals. Rhinoceros utilize a variety of habitats, but within these show positive selection for certain habitats. Home ranges generally included more Euclea bush, and less grassland and Acacia bush than expected. Rhinoceros make use of regular resting places, or bedding sites, generally situated in bushland in secluded areas, often in dense thickets. Rhinoceros defaecate at dung piles or middens. Middens are located throughout the range not just on the boundaries; the highest density of middens was found in riverine woodland, and the lowest density in grassland and Acacia

Ranging behaviour and habitat usage in black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis, in a Kenyan sanctuary

Thiarubrine A, an antimicrobial and nematocidal 1,2-dithiin polyyne has been reported to be a constituent of Aspilia leaves swallowed whole by chimpanzees. Aspilia samples were analyzed for the presence of thiarubrine A and other sulfur-containing polyynes using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and an antifungal bioassay. Thiarubrines A, B, D, and E and their corresponding thiophenes were not present in the leaves of three Aspilia species including A. mossambicensis and A. rudis, which are swallowed by chimpanzees at Mahale Mountains National Park and Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Antifungal activity, indicative of the presence of thiarubrines, was not detected in Aspilia leaf samples. Small amounts of thiarubrines A and B, and thiophenes A and B were found in A. mossambicensis roots. Analysis of three North American taxa found high concentrations of thiarubrines and thiophenes in the roots of Eriophyllum lanatum and Chaenactis douglasii, and the roots and leaves of Ambrosia chamissonis.

Chemical basis for Aspilia leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees : A reanalysis

In 1990, while Vince Smith was working as a senior keeper at Chester Zoo, a newborn chimpanzee in his care was abandoned by her mother. Named Sophie, the baby chimp was taken home and hand-reared by Vince and his wife. Six months later another new baby arrived: Oliver, their son. Sophie's Story is an enthralling account of Sophie's life, taking readers on an emotional journey through her early years in the English countryside with Vince and his family; her traumatic removal from the family she adored into a captive zoo world; her repatriation to Africa and eventual reunion with her human foster family; and, finally, her integration into a semi-wild group of chimpanzees. Other accounts have been written about pet animals reared in people's homes, but this book is different: Sophie wasn't a pet. A highly personal narrative centred on a chimpanzee raised with human foster parents. Describing in detail the parallel upbringing of an infant chimp and a human child, it is an inspirational story that provides fascinating insights into the nature of our closest-living relatives - and indeed ourselves.

Sophie's Story : Raising a Chimp in the Family

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Molecular ecology and natural history of Simian foamy virus infection in wild-living chimpanzees

Ranging behaviour and habitat usage in black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis, in a Kenyan sanctuary

Chemical basis for Aspilia leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees : A reanalysis

Sophie's Story : Raising a Chimp in the Family