Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely to be injured in accidents and fights than women? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book "Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences", author David Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Using the principles of sexual selection such as female choice and male-male competition, the author systematically reviewed and discussed the evolution of sex differences and their expression throughout the animal kingdom, as a means of not just describing but explaining the same process in Homo sapiens. Now, over ten years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g. DNA finger printing to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and, genetic, hormonal, and socio-cultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework (introduction in the first edition and expanded in "The Origin of Mind", 2005), Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition, with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is an even better book than the original - a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world.

Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences

It is difficult to think of any behavioural process that is more intrinsically important to us than attachment. Feeding, sleeping and locomotion are all necessary for survival, but humans are, as Baruch Spinoza famously noted, "a social animal" and it is our social attachments that we live for. Over the past decade, studies in a range of vertebrates, including humans, have begun to address the neural basis of attachment at a molecular, cellular and systems level. This review describes some of the important insights from this work.

The neurobiology of attachment

Because little is known about the human trait of affiliation, we provide a novel neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding. Discussion is organized around processes of reward and memory formation that occur during approach and consummatory phases of affiliation. Appetitive and consummatory reward processes are mediated independently by the activity of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine (DA)-nucleus accumbens shell (NAS) pathway and the central corticolimbic projections of the u-opiate system of the medial basal arcuate nucleus, respectively, although these two projection systems functionally interact across time. We next explicate the manner in which DA and glutamate interact in both the VTA and NAS to form incentive-encoded contextual memory ensembles that are predictive of reward derived from affiliative objects. Affiliative stimuli, in particular, are incorporated within contextual ensembles predictive of affiliative reward via: (a) the binding of affiliative stimuli in the rostral circuit of the medial extended amygdala and subsequent transmission to the NAS shell; (b) affiliative stimulus-induced opiate potentiation of DA processes in the VTA and NAS; and (c) permissive or facilitatory effects of gonadal steroids, oxytocin (in interaction with DA), and vasopressin on (i) sensory, perceptual, and attentional processing of affiliative stimuli and (ii) formation of social memories. Among these various processes, we propose that the capacity to experience affiliative reward via opiate functioning has a disproportionate weight in determining individual differences in affiliation. We delineate sources of these individual differences, and provide the first human data that support an association between opiate functioning and variation in trait affiliation.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/41885C410FD7476B2730780AFF265769/S0140525X05000063a.pdf/div-class-title-a-neurobehavioral-model-of-affiliative-bonding-implications-for-conceptualizing-a-human-trait-of-affiliation-div.pdf

A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation.

http://www.wisebrain.org/media/Papers/OxytocinSocCog.pdf

Oxytocin and the Neural Mechanisms Regulating Social Cognition and Affiliative Behavior

Introduction * Hormonal and Nonhormonal Basis of Maternal Behavior * Experiential Factors Influencing Maternal Behavior * Motivational Models of the Onset and Maintenance of Maternal Behavior and Maternal Agression * Neuroanatomy of Maternal Behavior * Neurochemistry and Molecular Biology of Maternal Behavior * Paternal Behavior * Neural Basis of Parental Behavior Revisited * Human Implications

The Neurobiology of Parental Behavior

Involvement of the main but not the accessory olfactory system in maternal behavior of primiparous and multiparous ewes

Measurement of cerebrospinal concentrations of oxytocin (OT) in intact and peridural-anesthetized ewes showed that central release of OT during parturition is inhibited by this anesthesia. Also, observations of maternal behavior and attraction to amniotic fluid (AF) in inexperienced peridural-anesthetized parturient ewes after intracerebroventricular injections of either OT (2 x 10 micrograms) or saline showed that OT infusions increased the proportion of maternal females (2/17 vs. 10/20; p = .01) and attraction to AF. This study confirms that in sheep vaginocervical stimulation activates the oxytocinergic system, which induces the onset of maternal behavior, and that this action is not limited to maternally experienced females.

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bne/106/2/427.pdf

Intracerebral oxytocin is important for the onset of maternal behavior in inexperienced ewes delivered under peridural anesthesia.

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Involvement of the main but not the accessory olfactory system in maternal behavior of primiparous and multiparous ewes

Intracerebral oxytocin is important for the onset of maternal behavior in inexperienced ewes delivered under peridural anesthesia.