A three-dimensional, primitive-equation ocean circulation model was applied to Prince William Sound, Alaska (3D-PWS circulation model), under forcing of an ocean tide, freshwater runoff, surface heat flux, Alaska Coastal Current (ACC) throughflow (inflow/outflow), and daily (synoptic), spatially varying winds. The 3D structures and seasonal cycles of the circulation patterns, temperature, salinity (density), and mixed layer are examined. Freshwater runoff significantly contributes to the basin-scale cyclonic circulation, which was not addressed in the previous simulations. Two typical circulation regimes, cyclonic and anticyclonic, characterize the complex flow patterns that depend on the intensities of the ACC thoughflow, freshwater discharge, and the synoptic wind. The spring (April–May) circulation pattern is characterized by a weak (maximum current 0.1 ms−1) anticyclonic flow in the central Sound, while the autumn (September–October) circulation is dominated by a basin-scale, cyclonic gyre (maximum current 0.2 ms−1) due to the increase of the ACC throughflow and the maximum freshwater influence. During the summer, the circulation includes the cyclonic and anticyclonic gyres. During the winter, the circulation pattern is controlled by the basin-scale cyclonic gyre and surface drift driven by the strong north-easterly (south-westward) wind forcing. The seasonal cycles of temperature (T) and salinity (S) vs. depth compare well with the observations. The simulated spring and autumn surface circulation patterns compare qualitatively well with the towed ADCP (acoustic Doppler current profilers) flow patterns and dynamic height patterns in the central Sound. An application of this model to zooplankton overwintering is discussed.

Numerical simulations of the seasonal circulation patterns and thermohaline structures of Prince William Sound, Alaska

[1] Freshwater discharge into the Gulf of Alaska (GOA) has an important effect on coastal circulation. In order to incorporate freshwater discharge into a three-dimensional ocean circulation model with both point sources (big rivers) and line sources (gridded coastlines) a digital elevation model (DEM) was developed to simulate freshwater discharge into the GOA under forcing of daily air temperature and precipitation data from National Centers for Environmental Predication/National Center for Atmospheric Research reanalysis during 1958–1998. This GOA-DEM includes glacier, snow storage, and melting processes. Coastal freshwater discharge into the GOA displays a very strong seasonal cycle and interannual variability. The comparison of simulated runoff with gauged (observed) river discharge was conducted for two major rivers (Copper River and Susitna River), showing a good agreement on seasonal cycle and interannual variability. The simulated annual mean of the total freshwater discharge into the GOA ranges from 19,000 to 31,000 m3 s−1 (with a mean of 23,100 m3 s−1) for the period 1958–1998. In the winter season (November to April), precipitation is mainly stored as snow, and freshwater discharge remains as a small base flow with some occasional changes due to short-term temperature increase. Freshwater discharge starts to rise sharply from May because of increasing precipitation and above-freezing temperatures and remains high from June through September because of snowmelt and some melting glaciers. In October the discharge decreases rapidly, to a basic flow in December as the temperature drops below the freezing point. Freshwater discharge into the GOA can be divided into the point sources (big rivers) and the line sources (ungauged numerous small streams and creeks due to melting of snow and glaciers). The model shows that five major rivers (point sources) account for about 50.6% of the total drainage areas, while the line source accounts for 49.4% of the drainage area. However, our new finding is that the point sources only account for 26%, while the line sources contribute 74% to the total runoff. Thus discharge from line sources (ungauged small rivers, streams, and creeks) is 2.8 times greater than from the point sources (five large rivers).

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2002JC001430

A hydrological digital elevation model for freshwater discharge into the Gulf of Alaska

. The Black Oystercatcher (Haematopus bachmani) is an intertidal obligate along North America's Pacific coast and a species of high conservation concern (population size 8900–11 000 individuals). Understanding birds' movements and space use throughout the annual cycle has become paramount in the face of changing environmental conditions, and intertidal species may be particularly vulnerable to habitat change due to anticipated sea-level rise associated with climate change and increasing coastal development. Conservation of the Black Oystercatcher is hindered by a lack of information on the species' nonbreeding distribution, seasonal movements, and habitat connectivity. Using satellite (n = 19) and VHF (n = 19) radio transmitters, we tracked Black Oystercatchers from five breeding sites (Vancouver Island, British Columbia; Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, Middleton Island, and Juneau, Alaska) through one and one half annual cycles (May 2007–Dec 2008). We documented medium- to long-distance migr...

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/cond.2010.090215

Seasonal movements, winter range use, and migratory connectivity of the Black Oystercatcher

Using 3-D circulation model and buoy station data in the central sound, a four-year (19951998) simulation was conducted under combined forcing of monthly heat flux, freshwater discharge of a line source, daily wind, Alaska Coastal Current inflow/outflow and tide. The seasonal cycle of the circulation in the sound matches well with field observations. The simulated monthly mean sea surface temperature (SST) matches well with the observed seasonal cycle of 1995-1998 at NOAA Station 46060. Sensitivity studies were conducted to identify the key environmental parameters of the model forcing: wind, tide, Alaska Coastal Current inflow/outflow, and surface temperature and salinity restoring. All of these forcings were proven to be important. A sixty-day oil drift trajectory simulation was conducted for each year. The drifters were released outside Bligh Reef on March 24 of each year. The numerical experiments show large interannual variability of possible oil spill trajectories. Most of the oil spill remained in the sound after 60 days in 1995, 1997 and 1998. Most of the oil spill drifted out of the sound from Montague Strait into the Gulf of Alaska in 1996.

3-D Ocean State Simulations for Ecosystem Applications from 1995-1998 in Prince William Sound, Alaska Restoration Project 00389 Final Report

A three-dimensional, primitive equation ocean circulation model (Wang and Ikeda[7]), was applied to Prince William Sound, Alaska (3D-PWS model) under forcing of freshwater runoff of a line source, heat flux, Gulf of Alaska (GOA) water inflow/outflow (throughflow), and daily (synoptic), spatially varying winds. The 3-D structures and seasonal cycles of the circulation patterns, temperature, salinity, and density were examined in real bottom topography. The river/lake' scenarios (i.e., the weak versus strong flushing throughflow) were captured on a monthly basis. The freshwater runoff of the line source significantly contributes to the basin-scale cyclonic circulation which can't be seen in previous simulations without freshwater runoff (Mooers and Wang [31). Wind forcing due to the orographic effect substantially contributes to the circulation patterns in the Sound. Multiple circulation regimes (cyclonic, anticyclonic, and their combination) characterize the complexity of the system which depends on the intensity of the GOA water throughflow, freshwater discharge of the line source, and the synoptic wind. A winter circulation is characterized by a high flushing regime due to high throughflow and northeast winds, while the spring pattern is dominated by a basin-scale anticyclonic gyre. The summer (July to September) circulation is controlled by a basin-scale cyclonic gyre due to the maximum freshwater influence along the coastline. The autumn circulation is driven by a combination of the throughflow and the northeast wind-driven flow. The simulated cyclonic gyre in summer and late fall is supported by observations.

Modeling seasonal ocean circulation of Prince William Sound, Alaska using freshwater of a line source

Modeling Seasonal Ocean Circulation Of PrinceWilliam Sound, Alaska Using Freshwater Of ALine Source

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Modeling seasonal ocean circulation of Prince William Sound, Alaska using freshwater of a line source

Modeling Seasonal Ocean Circulation Of PrinceWilliam Sound, Alaska Using Freshwater Of ALine Source