We present an updated version of SKIRT, a three-dimensional (3D) Monte Carlo radiative transfer code developed to simulate dusty galaxies. The main novel characteristics of the SKIRT code are the use of a stellar foam to generate random positions, an efficient combination of eternal forced scattering and continuous absorption, and a new library approach that links the radiative transfer code to the DustEM dust emission library. This approach enables a fast, accurate, and self-consistent calculation of the dust emission of arbitrary mixtures of transiently heated dust grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, even for full 3D models containing millions of dust cells. We have demonstrated the accuracy of the SKIRT code through a set of simulations based on the edge-on spiral galaxy UGC 4754. The models we ran were gradually refined from a smooth, two-dimensional, local thermal equilibrium (LTE) model to a fully 3D model that includes non-LTE (NLTE) dust emission and a clumpy structure of the dusty interstellar medium. We find that clumpy models absorb UV and optical radiation less efficiently than smooth models with the same amount of dust, and that the dust in clumpy models is on average both cooler and less luminous. Our simulations demonstrate that, given the appropriate use of optimization techniques, it is possible to efficiently and accurately run Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations of arbitrary 3D structures of several million dust cells, including a full calculation of the NLTE emission by arbitrary dust mixtures.

/pdf/efficient-three-dimensional-nlte-dust-radiative-transfer-1q1ad3cnx7.pdf

Efficient three-dimensional nlte dust radiative transfer with skirt

We present an updated version of SKIRT, a 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code developed to simulate dusty galaxies. The main novel characteristics of the SKIRT code are the use of a stellar foam to generate random positions, an efficient combination of eternal forced scattering and continuous absorption, and a new library approach that links the radiative transfer code to the DustEM dust emission library. This approach enables a fast, accurate and self-consistent calculation of the dust emission of arbitrary mixtures of transiently heated dust grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, even for full 3D models containing millions of dust cells. We have demonstrated the accuracy of the SKIRT code through a set of simulations based on the edge-on spiral galaxy UGC 4754. The models we ran were gradually refined from a smooth, 2D, LTE model to a fully 3D model that includes NLTE dust emission and a clumpy structure of the dusty ISM. We find that clumpy models absorb UV and optical radiation less efficiently than smooth models with the same amount of dust, and that the dust in clumpy models is on average both cooler and less luminous. Our simulations demonstrate that, given the appropriate use of optimization techniques, it is possible to efficiently and accurately run Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations of arbitrary 3D structures of several million dust cells, including a full calculation of the NLTE emission by arbitrary dust mixtures.

Efficient 3D NLTE dust radiative transfer with SKIRT

We combine new Herschel/SPIRE sub-millimeter observations with existing multiwavelength data to investigate the dust scaling relations of the Herschel Reference Survey, a magnitude-, volume-limited sample of similar to 300 nearby galaxies in different environments. We show that the dust-to-stellar mass ratio anti-correlates with stellar mass, stellar mass surface density and NUV - r colour across the whole range of parameters covered by our sample. Moreover, the dust-to-stellar mass ratio decreases significantly when moving from late-to early-type galaxies. These scaling relations are similar to those observed for the Hi gas-fraction, supporting the idea that the cold dust is tightly coupled to the cold atomic gas component in the interstellar medium. We also find a weak increase of the dust-to-Hi mass ratio with stellar mass and colour but no trend is seen with stellar mass surface density. By comparing galaxies in different environments we show that, although these scaling relations are followed by both cluster and field galaxies, Hi-deficient systems have, at fixed stellar mass, stellar mass surface density and morphological type systematically lower dust-to-stellar mass and higher dust-to-Hi mass ratios than Hi-normal/field galaxies. This provides clear evidence that dust is removed from the star-forming disk of cluster galaxies but the effect of the environment is less strong than what is observed in the case of the Hi disk. Such effects naturally arise if the dust disk is less extended than the Hi and follows more closely the distribution of the molecular gas phase, i.e., if the dust-to-atomic gas ratio monotonically decreases with distance from the galactic center.

https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2113406/file/2115378.pdf

The dust scaling relations of the Herschel Reference Survey

We present new 12CO(1-0) observations of 59 late-type galaxies belonging to the Herschel Reference Survey (HRS), a complete K-band-selected, volume-limited (15 <D< 25 Mpc) sample of nearby galaxies spanning a wide range in morphological type and luminosity. We studied different recipes to correct single-beam observations of nearby galaxies of different sizes and inclinations for aperture effects. This was done by comparing single-beam and multiple-beam observations along the major axis, which were corrected for aperture effects using different empirical or analytical prescriptions, to integrated maps of several nearby galaxies, including edge-on systems observed by different surveys. The resulting recipe is an analytical function determined by assuming that late-type galaxies are 3D exponentially declining discs with a characteristic scale length r_CO} = 0.2 r_24.5, where r_24.5 is the optical, g- (or B-) band isophotal radius at the 24.5 mag arcsec^-2 (25 mag arcsec^-2), as well as a scale height z_CO = 1/100 r_24.5. Our new CO data are then combined with those available in the literature to produce the most updated catalogue of CO observations for the HRS, now including 225 out of the 322 galaxies of the complete sample. The 3D exponential disc integration is applied to all the galaxies of the sample to measure their total CO fluxes, which are later transformed into molecular gas masses using a constant and a luminosity-dependent X_CO conversion factor. We also collect HI data for 315 HRS galaxies from the literature and present it in a homogenised form.

/pdf/cold-gas-properties-of-the-herschel-reference-survey-i-12co-2r5pihsew2.pdf

Cold gas properties of the Herschel Reference Survey. I. 12CO(1-0) and HI data

We provide an overview of ancillary 24-, 70- and 160-μm data from the Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer (MIPS) that are intended to complement the 70–500 μm Herschel Space Observatory photometry data for nearby galaxies obtained by the Herschel-SPIRE Local Galaxies Guaranteed Time Programs and the Herschel Virgo Cluster Survey. The MIPS data can be used to extend the photometry to wavebands that are not observed in these Herschel surveys and to check the photometry in cases where Herschel performs observations at the same wavelengths. Additionally, we measured globally integrated 24–160 μm flux densities for the galaxies in the sample that can be used for the construction of spectral energy distributions. Using MIPS photometry published by other references, we have confirmed that we are obtaining accurate photometry for these galaxies.

/pdf/mips-24-160-mm-photometry-for-the-herschel-spire-local-4o4jg9err0.pdf

MIPS 24–160 μm photometry for the Herschel-SPIRE Local Galaxies Guaranteed Time Programs

We present Herschel-SPIRE observations at 250-500 mu m of the giant elliptical galaxy M 86 and examine the distribution of the resolved cold dust emission and its relation with other galactic tracers. The SPIRE images reveal three dust components: emission from the central region; a dust lane extending north-south; and a bright emission feature 10 kpc to the south-east. We estimate that similar to 10(6) M-circle dot of dust is spatially coincident with atomic and ionized hydrogen, originating from stripped material from the nearby spiral NGC 4438 due to recent tidal interactions with M 86. The gas-to-dust ratio of the cold gas component ranges from similar to 20-80. We discuss the different heating mechanisms for the dust features.

/pdf/the-dust-morphology-of-the-elliptical-galaxy-m-86-with-spire-5r9dxcjnrp.pdf

The dust morphology of the elliptical Galaxy M 86 with SPIRE

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The dust morphology of the elliptical Galaxy M 86 with SPIRE