A number of materials have been explored for their use as artificial muscles Among these, dielectric elastomers (DEs) appear to provide the best combination of properties for true muscle-like actuation DEs behave as compliant capacitors, expanding in area and shrinking in thickness when a voltage is applied Materials combining very high energy densities, strains, and efficiencies have been known for some time To date, however, the widespread adoption of DEs has been hindered by premature breakdown and the requirement for high voltages and bulky support frames Recent advances seem poised to remove these restrictions and allow for the production of highly reliable, high-performance transducers for artificial muscle applications

Advances in dielectric elastomers for actuators and artificial muscles.

The increasing understanding of the advantages offered by fish and insect-like locomotion is creating a demand for muscle-like materials capable of mimicking nature's mechanisms. Actuator materials that employ voltage, field, light, or temperature driven dimensional changes to produce forces and displacements are suggesting new approaches to propulsion and maneuverability. Fundamental properties of these new materials are presented, and examples of potential undersea applications are examined in order to assist those involved in device design and in actuator research to evaluate the current status and the developing potential of these artificial muscle technologies. Technologies described are based on newly explored materials developed over the past decade, and also on older materials whose properties are not widely known. The materials are dielectric elastomers, ferroelectric polymers, liquid crystal elastomers, thermal and ferroelectric shape memory alloys, ionic polymer/metal composites, conducting polymers, and carbon nanotubes. Relative merits and challenges associated with the artificial muscle technologies are elucidated in two case studies. A summary table provides a quick guide to all technologies that are discussed.

Artificial muscle technology: physical principles and naval prospects

This review collects recent developments in the field of liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) with an emphasis on their use for actuator and sensor applications. Several synthetic pathways leading to crosslinked liquid crystalline polymers are discussed and how these materials can be oriented into liquid crystalline monodomains are described. By comparing the actuating properties of different systems, general structure-property relationships for LCEs are obtained. In the final section, how these materials can be turned into usable devices using different interdisciplinary techniques are described.

Liquid Crystalline Elastomers as Actuators and Sensors

A number of electroactive polymers have been explored for their use as artificial muscles. Among these, dielectric elastomers appear to provide the best combination of properties for true muscle-like actuation. Dielectric elastomers behave as compliant capacitors, expanding in area and shrinking in thickness when a voltage is applied. Materials combining very high energy densities, strains and efficiencies have been known for some time. To date, however, the widespread adoption of dielectric elastomers has been hindered by premature breakdown and the requirement for high voltages and bulky support frames. Recent advances seem poised to remove these restrictions and allow for the production of highly reliable, high-performance transducers for artificial muscle applications.

Dielectric Elastomers for Actuators and Artificial Muscles

The copolyaddition of α-ω-dienes with disulfides and unsaturated surfmers within the organized architecture of polyelectrolyte−surfactant complexes is presented. The influence of monomer swelling and polymerization on the phase morphology of the host was investigated by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). SAXS shows that the specific monomer systems allow unusually high monomer swelling (and corresponding polymer content of hydrophobic monomer) under preservation of the order on the nanoscale. This is supported by the TEM measurements where long-range ordered lamellar arrays with a repeat period of up to 4.8 nm were identified. This corresponds to a swelling of the lamellar phase, with preservation of long-range order, and an increase in the d-spacing as compared to the original complex, of more than 150%.

Polymerization of the organized phases of polyelectrolyte-surfactant complexes

The pyroelectric response and the thermal properties of microtomized sections of 'single-crystalline' ferroelectric liquid crystalline elastomers (FLCE) have been investigated. The microtomized sections were manufactured in the thickness range from 20 to 100 mum. The roughness of the surfaces due to the cutting process was investigated with an alpha-stepper and found to be in the range of about 5 mum. The thermal diffusivity of the elastomer at different temperatures was determined by placing the sample on a pyroelectric substrate and measuring the pyroelectric signal of the substrate under appropriate conditions. From the pyroelectric current spectra, information about the spatial distribution of the polarization could be deduced. It was found to be constant except in a range also about 5 mum near the surface. From the combination of this result and that of the alpha-stepper measurements, the conclusion is drawn that the molecular orientation at the surface is destroyed due to the cutting process. The ma...

Measurement of the pyroelectric response and of the thermal diffusivity of microtomized sections of 'single crystalline' ferroelectric liquid crystalline elastomers

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Measurement of the pyroelectric response and of the thermal diffusivity of microtomized sections of 'single crystalline' ferroelectric liquid crystalline elastomers