Spintronics, or spin electronics, involves the study of active control and manipulation of spin degrees of freedom in solid-state systems. This article reviews the current status of this subject, including both recent advances and well-established results. The primary focus is on the basic physical principles underlying the generation of carrier spin polarization, spin dynamics, and spin-polarized transport in semiconductors and metals. Spin transport differs from charge transport in that spin is a nonconserved quantity in solids due to spin-orbit and hyperfine coupling. The authors discuss in detail spin decoherence mechanisms in metals and semiconductors. Various theories of spin injection and spin-polarized transport are applied to hybrid structures relevant to spin-based devices and fundamental studies of materials properties. Experimental work is reviewed with the emphasis on projected applications, in which external electric and magnetic fields and illumination by light will be used to control spin and charge dynamics to create new functionalities not feasible or ineffective with conventional electronics.

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Spintronics: Fundamentals and applications

The electronic properties of inversion and accumulation layers at semiconductor-insulator interfaces and of other systems that exhibit two-dimensional or quasi-two-dimensional behavior, such as electrons in semiconductor heterojunctions and superlattices and on liquid helium, are reviewed. Energy levels, transport properties, and optical properties are considered in some detail, especially for electrons at the (100) silicon-silicon dioxide interface. Other systems are discussed more briefly.

Electronic properties of two-dimensional systems

An introductory review of the central ideas in the modern theory of dynamic critical phenomena is followed by a more detailed account of recent developments in the field. The concepts of the conventional theory, mode-coupling, scaling, universality, and the renormalization group are introduced and are illustrated in the context of a simple example---the phase separation of a symmetric binary fluid. The renormalization group is then developed in some detail, and applied to a variety of systems. The main dynamic universality classes are identified and characterized. It is found that the mode-coupling and renormalization group theories successfully explain available experimental data at the critical point of pure fluids, and binary mixtures, and at many magnetic phase transitions, but that a number of discrepancies exist with data at the superfluid transition of $^{4}\mathrm{He}$.

Theory of Dynamic Critical Phenomena

This review summarizes recent developments in the theory of spin glasses, as well as pertinent experimental data. The most characteristic properties of spin glass systems are described, and related phenomena in other glassy systems (dielectric and orientational glasses) are mentioned. The Edwards-Anderson model of spin glasses and its treatment within the replica method and mean-field theory are outlined, and concepts such as "frustration," "broken replica symmetry," "broken ergodicity," etc., are discussed. The dynamic approach to describing the spin glass transition is emphasized. Monte Carlo simulations of spin glasses and the insight gained by them are described. Other topics discussed include site-disorder models, phenomenological theories for the frozen phase and its excitations, phase diagrams in which spin glass order and ferromagnetism or antiferromagnetism compete, the Ne\'el model of superparamagnetism and related approaches, and possible connections between spin glasses and other topics in the theory of disordered condensed-matter systems.

Spin glasses: Experimental facts, theoretical concepts, and open questions

This paper reviews the progress made in the last several years in understanding the properties of disordered electronic systems. Even in the metallic limit, serious deviations from the Boltzmann transport theory and Fermi-liquid theory have been predicted and observed experimentally. There are two important ingredients in this new understanding: the concept of Anderson localization and the effects of interaction between electrons in a disordered medium. This paper emphasizes the theoretical aspect, even though some of the relevant experiments are also examined. The bulk of the paper focuses on the metallic side, but the authors also discuss the metal-to-insulator transition and comment on problems associated with the insulator.

Disordered electronic systems

Magnetic phases of a Heisenberg spin glass in strong magnetic fields: High field faraday rotation in Cd1−xMnxTe

Within the Heisenberg model it is studied, how the magnetic excitations and the magnetization curve of an amorphous ferromagnet depend on the exchange integralJ(r). For the “relaxed” structural model of L. von Heimendahl, consisting ofN=888 sites, the density of spin wave states is calculated by means of a continued fraction algorithm, using various model assumptions on the radial dependence ofJ(r). Although it is assumed thatJ(r) is different from zero only within the “nearest neighbour region” of the radial distributiong(r), the density of spin wave states and the critical temperature are strongly influenced by a positive or negative derivative ofJ(r) in this region. However, the magnetization curves, which are calculated in the Tyablikov decoupling approximation fors=1/2, show only a weak flattening, compared with the idealfcc case, when presented overT/Tc. The calculated low-temperature behaviour of the magnetization is compared with recent experiments on ferromagnetic metglasses, and it is found that a description with localized spins and a short-range Heisenberg interaction should be much better for these systems than for the corresponding crystalline metals.

Spin Wave Excitations and the Magnetization Curve of Amorphous Ferromagnets

Itenerant magnetic properties of amorphous metallic systems: Numerical studies of the Fe-B alloys

Exchange coupling and magnetization in bcc-(001) Fe/Cu multilayers by a tight-binding LMTO-ASA method

Within the RPA approach forT=0, the excitations of the Heisenberg spin glass system Eu
 x
 Sr1−x
S are studied by numerical methods, using a continued fraction algorithm. Both the density of statesg(E) and also the spectral functionS(q,E) are calculated for systems with (16)3 sites, withx=0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 (spin glass phase), and also forx≧0.7 (ferromagnetic phase). Forq-vectors within the (1,1,1) plane,S(q,E) shows magnon peaks even in the spin glass phase, over the whole range ofq. However, these peaks are quite broad, and there is considerable intensity at small energies even for largeq, leading to a finite intercept ofg(E) forE→0. Over a large temperature range, the specific heat is approximately linear inT forx≲0.7.

Excitations in Heisenberg Spin Glasses

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