https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6463/ab9c6a/pdf

The 2020 photovoltaic technologies roadmap

Projection of the photovoltaic waste in Spain until 2050

Copper‐plated interconnects were widely adopted for volume manufacture of integrated circuits after more than a decade of intensive research to demonstrate that use of Cu would not impact device reliability. However, although Cu‐plated metallisation promises significantly reduced costs for Si photovoltaics, its adoption in manufacturing has not gained the same traction. This review identifies some key challenges facing the introduction of Cu‐plated metallisation for Si photovoltaics. These include the following: (1) increased carrier recombination due to the use of Cu for metal contact formation; (2) reduced module reliability due to adhesion or contact integrity failures; and (3) limited availability of cost‐effective processes and equipment for metal plating. For integrated circuits, Cu's low electrical resistance and high resistance to electromigration provided an impetus for the large investment in process development that was required to realise Cu‐plated interconnects. However, the technical advantages of using Cu for Si solar cell contacts are not as compelling, as solar cells can tolerate larger feature sizes thus reducing the criticality of the contact metal's conductivity and electromigration properties. Additionally, for Si photovoltaics, low cost is paramount, and new challenges arise from the need for modules to absorb light and operate in the field for 25+ years in diverse outdoor climates. However, with the scale of Si photovoltaic manufacturing expected to increase dramatically in the next decade, the use of large quantities of silver for cell metallisation will provide an incentive to address reliability concerns regarding the use of Cu for Si photovoltaic metallisation.

Challenges facing copper-plated metallisation for silicon photovoltaics: Insights from integrated circuit technology development

The challenge to the PV industry is to find test methods which assess the durability of modules and their components to multiple stresses. The effectiveness of these methods can be assessed by comparison to known degradation modes observed in the field. We have developed sequential test methods which apply an accelerated exposure of a key environmental stress including UV, temperature, humidity, and mechanical stress in a sequential fashion. These stresses are applied sequentially to address the need for using established environmental equipment and methods. This methodology has been effective in predicting backsheet failures in the field and examples will be provided. Efforts to reduce the total test time will also be discussed.

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel7/8510986/8547203/08547260.pdf

Sequential Stress Testing to Predict Photovoltaic Module Durability

Reducing the warranty cost to increase profit is a major focus for most businesses. To achieve this goal, the acceptance sampling plan (ASP) can be an efficient tool to validate whether the product...

Lifetime performance-qualified sampling system under a Weibull distribution with failure-censoring

Continued growth of PV system deployment would be enhanced by quantitative, low-uncertainty predictions of the degradation and failure rates of PV modules and systems. The intended product lifetime (decades) far exceeds the product development cycle (months), limiting our ability to reduce the uncertainty of the predictions for this rapidly changing technology. Yet, business decisions (setting insurance rates, analyzing return on investment, etc.) require quantitative risk assessment. Moving toward more quantitative assessments requires consideration of many factors, including the intended application, consequence of a possible failure, variability in the manufacturing, installation, and operation, as well as uncertainty in the measured acceleration factors, which provide the basis for predictions based on accelerated tests. As the industry matures, it is useful to periodically assess the overall strategy for standards development and prioritization of research to provide a technical basis both for the standards and the analysis related to the application of those. To this end, this paper suggests a tiered approach to creating risk assessments. Recent and planned potential improvements in international standards are also summarized.

Qualification Testing versus Quantitative Reliability Testing of PV – Gaining Confidence in a Rapidly Changing Technology

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Qualification Testing versus Quantitative Reliability Testing of PV – Gaining Confidence in a Rapidly Changing Technology