Human evolution has clearly been shaped by gene–culture interactions, and there is growing evidence that similar processes act on populations of non-human animals as well. Recent theoretical studies have shown that culture can be an important evolutionary mechanism due to the ability of cultural traits to spread rapidly both vertically and horizontally, resulting in decreased within-group variance and increased between-group variance. Here, we collate the extensive literature on population divergence in killer whales (Orcinus orca) and argue that they are undergoing ecological speciation as a result of dietary specializations. While we cannot exclude the possibility that cultural divergence predates ecological divergence, we propose that cultural differences in the form of learned behaviors between ecologically-divergent killer whale populations have resulted in sufficient reproductive isolation in sympatry to lead to incipient speciation.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01872.x

Cultural traditions and the evolution of reproductive isolation: ecological speciation in killer whales?

Predator-prey interactions between Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) and newly metamorphosed herring (Clupea harengus) were studied in the Lofoten-Rost area in northern Norway using a high-resolution multibeam sonar system. Attacks from diving puffins and predatory fish induced massive predator-response patterns at the school level, including bend, vacuole, hourglass, pseudopodium, herd, and split. All patterns have previously been observed, using the same sonar, in schools of adult herring attacked by groups of killer whales. Tight ball, the prevailing response pattern in adult fish under predation, was not observed, but a new pattern, intraschool density propagation, was found and interpreted as an analogue to tight-ball formations moving rapidly within the school. The observed patterns per - sisted much longer than in schools of adult herring attacked by killer whales, reflecting the different hunting strategies. Traditionally, the repertoire of predator responses observed in schooling fish has been interpreted as a range of co - operative tactics to trick predators, but this has recently been challenged by authors who suggested that fish that behave the same way produce different patterns at group level simply by maintaining a minimum approach distance to preda- tors and hiding behind conspecifics (the "selfish herd"), and that the particular combination of group size and number and behaviour of predators, rather than different individual tactics, determines the outcome at group level. Our findings support the latter hypothesis. Resume : Nous avons etudie les interactions predateurs-proies entre des Macareux moines (Fratercula arctica )e t des Harengs (Clupea harengus) fraichement metamorphoses dans la region de Lofoten-Rost, dans le nord de la Norvege au moyen d'un sonar de haute resolution a faisceaux multiples. Les attaques des oiseaux en plongee et des poissons predateurs declenchent des patterns de reaction massive au sein des bancs de harengs : repliement, vacuole, sablier, pseudopode, troupeau et separation, types de comportement deja observes, au moyen du meme sonar, dans des bancs de harengs adultes attaques par des epaulards. La formation d'une boule compacte, la reaction la plus frequente des poissons adultes face a des predateurs, n'a pas ete observee, mais il s'est produit un nouveau pattern dans les bancs de harengs, la pulsion de densite, interpretee comme analogue a la formation d'une boule compacte, mais se deplacant rapidement dans le banc. Ces patterns ont dure beaucoup plus longtemps que ceux observes dans les bancs de harengs adultes attaques par des epaulards, ce qui reflete la diversite des strategies de chasse. Traditionnellement, le repertoire des reactions aux predateurs observe au sein des bancs de poissons est considere comme une serie de tactiques de cooperation pour tromper les predateurs, mais cette theorie a ete remise en question par les auteurs qui croient que ces poissons qui se comportent de la meme facon produisent des patterns differents quand ils sont en groupe en s'approchant tout simplement le moins possible des predateurs et en se cachant derriere des individus conspecifiques (le « troupeau egoiste »). C'est la combinaison particuliere de la taille du groupe, du nombre et du comportement des predateurs plutot que l'ensemble des tactiques individuelles qui determine l'issue de la predation dans le groupe. Nos resultats supportent cette derniere hypothese. (Traduit par la Redaction) Axelsen et al. 1596

Pretty patterns but a simple strategy: predator- prey interactions between juvenile herring and Atlantic puffins observed with multibeam sonar

Background
The origin and stability of cooperation is a hot topic in social and behavioural sciences. A complicated conundrum exists as defectors have an advantage over cooperators, whenever cooperation is costly so consequently, not cooperating pays off. In addition, the discovery that humans and some animal populations, such as lions, are polymorphic, where cooperators and defectors stably live together -- while defectors are not being punished--, is even more puzzling. Here we offer a novel explanation based on a Threshold Public Good Game (PGG) that includes the interaction of individual and group level selection, where individuals can contribute to multiple collective actions, in our model group hunting and group defense.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186%2F1471-2148-10-336.pdf

Beneficial laggards: multilevel selection, cooperative polymorphism and division of labour in threshold public good games

We present the first acoustic observations of predator-prey interactions between fin whales and herring. The school dynamics and predation events of Norwegian spring-spawning herring (Clupea harengus) in a cold front area (about 125 km 2 ) in the Norwegian Sea in April were quantified. Data from high-resolution sonar tracking of herring schools combined with echosounder data were integrated with pelagic-trawl samples. A total of 44 herring schools were each observed for an average of 34.8 min. Altogether, 184 behavioural events were recorded, with an event occurring every 8.3 min on average. Intra-school events (compression, reorganization, ring, pseudopodium, elongate, diving, surfacing) were observed every 15.3 min and inter-school events (approach, join, leave, split) every 22.9 min. We observed 17 fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), six Atlantic white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) and five killer whales (Orcinus orca) within the experimental area. Predator events occurred every 91 min on average. Of these marine mammals only fin whales swimming alone or in small groups (2-5 ind.) were observed to attack herring. Attacks from fin whales were observed every 170 min. They strongly influenced the density, shape and structure of the herring schools. Large fish such as cod (Gadus morhua) and saithe (Pollachius virens) preying on herring in coastal areas were not caught in the pelagic trawl or detected by acoustics. Herring schools were on average large (987 m 2 ), dense, swam at depth (148 m) and had a moderate swimming speed (1.1 body lengths per second), reflecting a risk-averse, anti-predator behaviour to marine mammals. We discuss differences in schooling dynamics, anti-predator behaviour, attack frequency and predation risk between herring attacked by fin whales in an offshore area and herring attacked by gadoid predators closer to the coast in a similar study in May.

How whales influence herring school dynamics in a cold-front area of the Norwegian Sea

Many delphinids feed on vertically migrating sound-scattering layers. The migration of micronektonic animals in these layers is strongly affected by light, both solar and lunar. Active acoustic approaches were used to observe lunar phase effects on the diel patterns of sound-scatter- ing layers in 2 habitats and to simultaneously observe the behavior of foraging spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris in Hawaii and dusky dolphins Lagenorhynchus obscurus in New Zealand. Lunar phase was important in structuring the behavior of diurnally migrating animals in scattering layers off both New Zealand and Hawaii. While the responses of these scattering layers to lunar phase dif- fered between locations, the layers were similar in continuing to migrate to surface waters during all moon phases, in contrast to results from other locations. In both dusky and spinner dolphins, dolphin relative abundance increased with increasing lunar illumination. The dolphin response to lunar phase is not clearly explained by the observed changes in prey. However, the results suggest that lunar phase is likely to be important in driving behavior of the many delphinid species that forage on vertically migrating prey. Active acoustics can be used to simultaneously study predator and prey, elucidating the foraging behavior of other dolphin species feeding on sound-scattering layers. Com- paring the observed patterns to the phylogeny of these diverse species could provide insights into the evolution of behavior in delphinids.

/pdf/using-active-acoustics-to-compare-lunar-effects-on-predator-2yi97zoeqt.pdf

Using active acoustics to compare lunar effects on predator-prey behavior in two marine mammal species

Killer whales attacking schooling fish: why force herring from deep water to the surface?

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Killer whales attacking schooling fish: why force herring from deep water to the surface?