Preface Chapter 1 The challenge Chapter 2 The nature of the evidence: A synthesis of meta-analyses Chapter 3 The argument: Visible teaching and visible learning Chapter 4: The contributions from the student Chapter 5 The contributions from the home Chapter 6 The contributions from the school Chapter 7 The contributions from the teacher Chapter 8 The contributions from the curricula Chapter 9 The contributions from teaching approaches - I Chapter 10 The contributions from teaching approaches - II Chapter 11: Bringing it all together Appendix A: The 800 meta-analyses Appendix B: The meta-analyses by rank order References

Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement

This paper concerns how motor actions are neurally represented and coded. Action planning and motor preparation can be studied using a specific type of representational activity, motor imagery. A close functional equivalence between motor imagery and motor preparation is suggested by the positive effects of imagining movements on motor learning, the similarity between the neural structures involved, and the similar physiological correlates observed in both imaging and preparing. The content of motor representations can be inferred from motor images at a macroscopic level, based on global aspects of the action (the duration and amount of effort involved) and the motor rules and constraints which predict the spatial path and kinematics of movements. A more microscopic neural account calls for a representation of object-oriented action. Object attributes are processed in different neural pathways depending on the kind of task the subject is performing. During object-oriented action, a pragmatic representation is activated in which object affordances are transformed into specific motor schemas (independently of other tasks such as object recognition). Animal as well as human clinical data implicate the posterior parietal and premotor cortical areas in schema instantiation. A mechanism is proposed that is able to encode the desired goal of the action and is applicable to different levels of representational organization.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0140525X00034026

The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery

Why Investigate Metacognition?, T.0. Nelson and L. Narens Frustrated Feelings of Imminent Recall - On the Tip of the Tongue, S.M. Smith A New Look at Feeling of Knowing: Its Metacognitive Role in Regulating Question Answering, A.C. Miner and L.M. Reder Subthreshold Priming and Memory Monitoring, L. Narens, K.A. Jameson and V. A. Lee Methodological Problems and Pitfalls in the Study of Human Metacognition, B.L. Schwartz and J. Metcalfe Memory's Knowledge of its Own Knowledge - The Accessibility Account of the Feeling of Knowing, A. Koriat A Computational Modelling Approach to Novelty Monitoring, Metacognition, and Frontal Lobe Dysfunction, J. Metcalfe Viewing Eyewitness Research from a Metacognitive Perspective, K. Weingardt, R.J. Leonesio and E.F. Loftus Memory and Metamemory Considerations in the Training of Human Beings, R.A. Bjork The Role of Metacognition in Problem-Solving, J.E. Davidson, R. Deuser and R.J. Sternberg Metacognitive Development in Adulthood and Old Age, C. Hertzog and R.A. Dixon The Neuropsychology of Metacognition, A.P. Shimamura.

Metacognition : knowing about knowing

The authors performed a meta-analysis of the distributed practice effect to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles. Effects of spacing (consecutive massed presentations vs. spaced learning episodes) and lag (less spaced vs. more spaced learning episodes) were examined, as were expanding interstudy interval (ISI) effects. Analyses suggest that ISI and retention interval operate jointly to affect final-test retention; specifically, the ISI producing maximal retention increased as retention interval increased. Areas needing future research and theoretical implications are discussed.

/pdf/distributed-practice-in-verbal-recall-tasks-a-review-and-57lzd2e2jb.pdf

Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.

We argue herein that typical training procedures are far from optimal. The goat of training in real-world settings is, or should be, to support two aspects of posttraining performance: (a) the level of performance in the long term and (b) the capability to transfer that training to related tasks and altered contexts. The implicit or explicit assumption of those persons responsible for training is that the procedures that enhance performance and speed improvement during training will necessarily achieve these two goals. However, a variety of experiments on motor and verbal learning indicate that this assumption is often incorrect. Manipulations that maximize performance during training can be detrimental in the long term; conversely, manipulations that degrade the speed of acquisition can support the long-term goals of training. The fact that there are parallel findings in the motor and verbal domains suggests that principles of considerable generality can be deduced to upgrade training procedures.

New Conceptualizations of Practice: Common Principles in Three Paradigms Suggest New Concepts for Training

The authors describe the effects of practice conditions in motor learning (e.g., contextual interference, knowledge of results) within the constraints of 2 experimental variables: skill level and task difficulty. They use a research framework to conceptualize the interaction of those variables on the basis of concepts from information theory and information processing. The fundamental idea is that motor tasks represent different challenges for performers of different abilities. The authors propose that learning is related to the information arising from performance, which should be optimized along functions relating the difficulty of the task to the skill level of the performer. Specific testable hypotheses arising from the framework are also described.

Challenge Point: A Framework for Conceptualizing the Effects of Various Practice Conditions in Motor Learning

Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 4th ed.

Trois experiences tentent d'expliquer le paradoxe selon lequel les essais d'entrainement presentes dans un ordre aleatoire durant l'acquisition d'une habilete motrice sont nuisibles a la performance d'entrainement mais favorables a la performance de retention

/pdf/the-locus-of-contextual-interference-in-motor-skill-4w9guvpl70.pdf

The locus of contextual interference in motor skill acquisition

Recent research on the role of practice variables during the acquisition of motor skills is reviewed. These practice variables include (a) the effects of a model's skill level during observation, (b) how augmented feedback is provided to a learner, and (c) how practice conditions are arranged when learning multiple tasks. The results of research in these areas suggest that cognitive processes play an important role during the early stages of skill acquisition. Moreover, the effort by which these cognitive processes are undertaken is influenced by practice variables. Motor learning is enhanced when these variables are manipulated to promote cognitive effort by a learner.

http://hardcarve.com/wikipic/cognitive_effort_promotes_learning.pdf

Cognitive Effort and Motor Learning

In this study, we examined the influence of internal and external attention instructions on the performance of a pitch shot by golfers who were either highly skilled (mean handicap = 4) or low skilled (mean handicap = 26). Ten golfers in each skill group used a 9-iron to pitch a ball as close as possible to an orange pylon, which was located at distances of 10, 15, 20 or 25 m from the golfer. Focus of attention was manipulated within participants (counterbalanced across golfers). Under internal focus of attention instructions, the participants were told to concentrate on the form of the golf swing and to adjust the force of their swing depending on the distance of the shot. For the external focus of attention conditions, the participants were told to concentrate on hitting the ball as close to the target pylon as possible. The most intriguing finding was an interaction of skill with focus of attention instructions for variability in performance. Similar to the findings of Wulf and colleagues, the highly s...

Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers' skill.

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