What makes organizations so similar? We contend that the engine of rationalization and bureaucratization has moved from the competitive marketplace to the state and the professions. Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises: rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to change them. We describe three isomorphic processes-coercive, mimetic, and normative—leading to this outcome. We then specify hypotheses about the impact of resource centralization and dependency, goal ambiguity and technical uncertainty, and professionalization and structuration on isomorphic change. Finally, we suggest implications for theories of organizations and social change.

The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields (Chinese Translation)

Arthur Chickering is Distinguished Professor of Higher Education at Memphis State University. On leave from the Directorship of the Center for the Study of Higher Education at Memphis State, he is Visiting Professor at George Mason University. Zelda Gamson is a sociologist who holds appointments at the John W. McCormack Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Massachusetts-Boston and in the Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education at the University of Michigan.

Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education: Faculty Inventory. Institutional Inventory.

Norms, Deviance, and Social Control: Conceptual Matters.

We must be grateful to the University of Chicago Press for reissuing in trade paperback Professor Friedson's research into the sociology of physician behavior within closed-panel prepaid group practice. Although this two-year study was performed some time ago, present reissue of the results and conclusions is undoubtedly prompted by current interest in the two Os—HMOs and PSROs (health maintenance organizations and professional standards review organizations). The author occasionally wanders off into areas in which he has less expertise, but the main theme of the book is so soundly buttressed that it will surely become a standard reference. The author's argument is roughly as follows: In private fee-for-service practice, patients affiliate themselves with primary physicians by choice and primary physicians in turn choose the consultants who please them best; the voluntary network is self-policing. In prepaid group practice, however, patients and physicians are together in a rigid box. In

Doctoring Together: A Study of Professional Social Control

Over the last 40 years, numerous studies have been conducted on the impacts of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) on African American students. An overwhelming majority of these studies attested to the beneficial academic and developmental effects of HBCUs for African American students (Allen, 1992; Astin, Tsui, & Avalos, 1996; Bonous-Hammarth & Boatsman, 1996; Davis, 1991; Fleming, 1984; Harper et al., 2004; Kim & Conrad, 2006; Roebuck & Murty, 1993; Seifert, Drummond, & Pascarella, 2006). Numerous other studies compared aspects of African American undergraduate experiences at HBCUs and predominantly White institutions (PWIs) and concluded that African American students learned better and were more satisfied at HBCUs than at PWIs (Bohr et al., 1995; Cokley, 1999; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Flowers & Pascarella, 1999; Kim & Conrad, 2006; Palmer & Gasman, 2008; Watson & Kuh, 1996).Among these studies, many have addressed the topic of student engagement, and some addressed the issue of student satisfaction, but few focused on the relationships between student engagement and student satisfaction (Outcalt & Skewes-Cox, 2002). Researchers have found that positive student satisfaction is connected with higher student persistence, better word-of-mouth reputation of the institution (Schreiner, 2009), more alumni involvement, and increased financial contributions (Gaier, 2005; Miller & Casebeer, 1990; Monks, 2003), all of which are desirable outcomes of higher education. Therefore, the authors wondered if increasing student engagement would lead to higher student satisfaction at HBCUs, which in turn may lead to the above-mentioned desirable outcomes. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between student engagement and student satisfaction for African Americans who enrolled at HBCUs and PWIs. For the purpose of this study a new method of selecting peer institutions for HBCUs was adapted, which would yield a more comparable group of institutions.LITERATURE REVIEWStudent Engagement and SatisfactionAlexander Astin's (1984, 1985, 1991) theory of student involvement and educational assessment framework-input-environment-outcome (I-E-O) model-provided the foundation and conceptual framework to understand the importance and impact of college student engagement. The last several decades have seen voluminous research in college student development supporting Astin's claim that the time and energy students devote to educationally purposeful activities is one of the best predictors of their learning and personal development in college (Astin, 1993; Carini, Kuh, & Klein, 2006; Kuh et al., 2008; Kuh et al., 2010; Pace, 1980; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). Wolf-Wendel and associates (2009) pointed out that the concept of student engagement actually includes two components. The first component of student engagement is what Astin called student involvement, which is the amount of physical and psychological energy students devote to educational experiences. The second component of student engagement involves how many resources and efforts an institution puts into creating and maintaining a nurturing environment that promotes student involvement (Kuh, 2001). The importance of the second component of student engagement is that institutions that more fully engage their students in educational activities can claim to be of higher quality in comparison with similar types of colleges and universities (Kuh, 2004).Certain institutional practices are known to lead to high levels of student engagement. For example, in 1987, Chickering and Gamson published the "Seven Principles of Good Practices in Undergraduate Education." These seven principles have been studied extensively and dispensed widely in many aspects of American higher education (Caboni, Mundy, & Duesterhaus, 2002; Chickering & Gamson, 1999; Poulsen, 1991;RoschN Sorcinelli, 1991; Whitt et al. …

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.4.0565

Bridging Student Engagement and Satisfaction: A Comparison between Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Predominantly White Institutions

(2002). The Implications of the Norms of Undergraduate College Students for Faculty Enactment of Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. Peabody Journal of Education: Vol. 77, No. 3, pp. 125-137.

The Implications of the Norms of Undergraduate College Students for Faculty Enactment of Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education.

This article delineates a normative structure of fundraising within the context of fouryear colleges and universities. Specifically, the researcher identifies three inviolable and six admonitory normative patterns of behavior which fundraisers proscribe. Additionally, the influence of individual and organizational characteristics on norm espousal are explored and the implications discussed.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40606860.pdf

The Normative Structure of College and University Fundraising Behaviors

This article describes the process by which the faculty of the Department of Leadership, Policy and Organizations at Vanderbilt University's Peabody College conceived and implemented a new doctoral program designed for senior education practitioners. The authors describe the organizational context in which decisions were made. Next, they explain the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of the revised degree program. Then, specifics of the program curriculum and delivery are detailed. Finally, the article explores how the reconceptualized program is differentiated from the traditional research doctorate. At Vanderbilt, the Ed.D. is designed for mid-career professionals with an orientation to practice who seek a terminal degree and career advancement within their organizations. It is oriented toward solving problems of practice and takes as its goal placement of graduates into senior leadership positions within educational organizations.

Re-Envisioning the Professional Doctorate for Educational Leadership and Higher Education Leadership: Vanderbilt University's Peabody College Ed.D. Program.

On August 26, 1981, the secretary of education, T. H. Bell, created the National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE) with the charge of presenting a report on the quality of education in April 1983. The final report was titled A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (NAR). In it, the NCEE detailed issues facing American education and proposed possible solutions to the identified problems. In the 20 years since the release of NAR, the proposed solutions have driven much of the debate surrounding K-12 education reform in the nation. Although primarily focused on issues tangential to postsecondary education, the report did make several important recommendations for reform in the U.S. higher education system. Also, because the majority of students engaged in postsecondary education have been prepared for college study in the nation's K-12 system, policies implemented in response to the report have influenced the quality and number of students entering higher education. The percentage of high school students entering U.S. colleges and universities is reaching record proportions. In 1994 over 75% of high school seniors enrolled in a post-

A Nation at Risk After 20 Years: Continuing Implications for Higher

Student perceptions of what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate classroom behavior are affected by who is being asked.

Student Norms of Classroom Decorum.

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