The course is focused on historical texts, most of them philosophical. Context for understanding the texts and the course of democratic development will be provided in lecture and discussions, and by some background readings (Dunn). We begin with the remarkable Athenian democracy, and its frequent enemy the Spartan oligarchy. In Athens legislation was passed directly by an assembly of all citizens, and executive officials were selected by lot rather than by competitive election. Athenian oligarchs such as Plato more admired Sparta, and their disdain for the democracy became the judgment of the ages, until well after the modern democratic revolutions. Marsilius of Padua in the early Middle Ages argued for popular sovereignty. The Italian citystates of the Middle Ages did without kings, and looked back to Rome and Greece for republican models. During the English Civil War republicans debated whether the few or the many should be full citizens of the regime. The English, French, and American revolutions struggled with justifying and establishing a representative democracy suitable for a large state, and relied on election rather than lot to select officials. The English established a constitutional monarchy, admired in Europe, and adapted by the Americans in their republican constitution. The American Revolution helped inspire the French, and the French inspired republican and democratic revolution throughout Europe during the 19 century.

/pdf/democracy-and-its-critics-2zxg086s7q.pdf

Democracy and Its Critics

Handbook of Environmental Economics

Identifying, managing and monitoring conflicts between forest biodiversity conservation and other human interests in Europe

Finnish forest policy in the era of bioeconomy: A pathway to sustainability?

Goals for public participation implied by sustainable development, and the preparatory process of the Finnish National Forest Programme

The central challenge for sustainable forest policies is their legitimacy among the people: are the political decision-making processes and their outcomes perceived as just according to prevalent social values? However, there is no established theoretical basis for the legitimacy research in the forest sector. This study develops a valid and comprehensive conceptual framework for empirical studies on legitimacy. The theoretical analysis is verified by detailed empirical illustrations from the public discourse on the Finnish forest regime. The theoretical framework analyzes the objects of support, patterns of legitimacy, performance evaluations, and how these relate to one another. The objects of political support can be classified as political community, regime norms, regime institutions, and actors. The patterns of legitimacy can be analyzed at different levels: (A) democracy and other forms of government, (B) different forms of participation, and (C) normative principles. The principles can be ...

Legitimacy of forest and nature conservation policy: A conceptual framework with illustrations

Value positions based on forest policy stakeholders’ rhetoric in Finland

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Legitimacy of forest and nature conservation policy: A conceptual framework with illustrations

Value positions based on forest policy stakeholders’ rhetoric in Finland