Power converters have widespread applications in automotive, renewables, and power systems. The demand for power modules with low power consumption and high efficiency has increased due to advancements in semiconductor devices. So, power converters need to be highly efficient to reduce costs associated with energy dissipation and cooling requirements. This paper discusses various active thermal control methods for high-power power converters. It covers modulation and configuration techniques, ranging from single configurations to cascaded, modular, and multilevel converters. These concepts form the basis of power electronics building blocks, particularly relevant in all-electric ship systems. Power electronics building blocks represent a thriving technology that will advance ship power systems, the thermal design of which plays a crucial role in managing high heat dissipation levels. Hence, thermal management is essential for reliable device performance. The paper thoroughly studies different active thermal control methods and their impact on power semiconductor devices and converters, categorized per configurations, power routing methods, modulation, and control layers. The review then moves to thermal control methods for the PEBBs concept using multilevel converters in all-electric ship systems and outlines future research directions for the thermal aspect of power electronics building blocks. 

Power Converters Coolant: Past, Present, Future, and a Path Toward Active Thermal Control in Electrified Ship Power Systems

Shipboard DC systems, a Critical Overview: Challenges in Primary Distribution, Power Electronics-based Protection, and Power Scalability

Model-based multidisciplinary design studies are presented for an isolated, bidirectional resonant power converter. The resonant topology chosen is a CLLC type, utilizing a split-core high frequency transformer and custom SiC MOSFET modules that implement paralleled 1.7 kV Gen 3 devices. Design goals for the converter include 500 kHz resonant frequency, 250 kW output power, and module weight of 35 pounds (15.88 kg). Electrical models are developed in L T Spice for device level studies, and in PLECS for converter-level studies. Co-design tradeoffs are identified and discussed, including zero-voltage switching, transformer design parameters, device thermal management, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) mitigation. 

Multi-Objective Co-Design of an Integrated Power Electronics Building Block

This paper proposes a high-bandwidth control structure for solid-state-transformers (SSTs). To fabricate a medium-voltage (MV, 25 kV <inf xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">rms</inf> ) SST, a 42-level AC/DC rectifier and forty-two dual-active-bridge (DAB) converters are required. However, it is challenging to simultaneously control these converters due to synchronization, propagation delay, and complexity. In this paper, an optimized structure for MV high-level SST controller is proposed. An industrial EtherCAT master PC and state-of-the-art micro-control-units (MCUs) TMS320F28388D are employed to fabricate the control environment. Using the serial-peripheral-interface (SPI) and EtherCAT protocols, a 10 kHz bandwidth data communication between controllers was achieved within a 100 μs delay. Based on the fast communication environment, a partially decentralized voltage balance control scheme, which reduces communication data size, is presented. The proposed controller is evaluated with a PLECS simulation model of the 42-level SST system.

High-bandwidth Control Structure for Solid-State-Transformers with EtherCAT Protocol

Efficient heat spreading is crucial for thermal management in high-power electronics. Dropwise vapor chambers (DWVC) utilize dropwise condensation and eliminate the condenser wick, which significantly improves the heat-spreading. In this study, a highly efficient DWVC was presented by integrating a non-wetting graphene surface. The working mechanism of DWVC was demonstrated via visualization and a prototype was experimentally investigated. Owing to dropwise condensation, two liquid return mechanisms were observed in the visualization. The DWVC prototype dissipated 256 Wheat (~41 W/cm 2 ) in experiment with the hotspot temperature at 88 °C. Overall, a 30%-50% thermal resistance reduction was achieved compared with the commercial vapor chamber, which is ~1/3 of the thermal resistance of pure copper with the same dimensions but 42 % lighter. Three orientation angles were tested and only a small elevation of thermal resistance was observed at 90°. Last, the improvement and optimization of DWVC planned for future work were discussed.

Performance Demonstration of a Dropwise Vapor Chamber for Highly Efficient Heat Spreading for Power Electronics

This paper presents the design of a 250 kW integrated power electronics building block (iPEBB) for future electric ship application. This work focuses on the motivation, design choices, and initial prototyping of a 500 kHz transformer and 1.7 kV SiC switching-cells which form the core of the converter. The transformer is designed for 13.8 kVAC and utilizes electric-field-grading conductive insulation layers. Furthermore, new insulating substrate technologies and layouts are explored to meet the challenges of developing a fast switching, low inductance switching-cell. Electrical, thermal, and weight analysis for the switching-cells are explored to achieve a power loop inductance of 3.5 nH and maximum junction temperature of 175 °C. The packaging of 1.7 kV SiC MOSFET switching-cells based on these substrates is also presented. This work will help advance the development of a light-weight, fast-switching iPEBB to serve as the backbone for power distribution systems on electric ships.

Design of a High-Frequency Transformer and 1.7 kV Switching-Cells for an Integrated Power Electronics Building Block (iPEBB)

This work focuses on the design, fabrication, and testing of 1.7 kV SiC MOSFET switching cells that form the H-bridges of a 250 kW solid-state transformer-based (SST-based) integrated power electronics building block (iPEBB). State-of-the-art multi-layer silicon nitride active metal brazed (AMB) substrates are used to develop an optimal switching cell design for the iPEBB that can handle both hard and soft switching. Electrical and thermal analyses for the switching cell are performed to reduce the power-loop inductance to 3.5 nH and achieve a junction-to-case thermal resistance (Rjc) of $0.285^{\circ}\mathrm{C} /\mathrm{W}$. The switching-cell packaging procedure is presented with testing results. This work will help advance the development of a lightweight, fast-switching iPEBB to serve as the backbone for future power distribution and smart grid systems.

Design, Fabrication, and Testing of a 1.7 kV SiC Switching Cell for a High-Density Integrated Power Electronics Building Block (iPEBB)

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Design of a High-Frequency Transformer and 1.7 kV Switching-Cells for an Integrated Power Electronics Building Block (iPEBB)

Design, Fabrication, and Testing of a 1.7 kV SiC Switching Cell for a High-Density Integrated Power Electronics Building Block (iPEBB)