In connection with the wide use of optoelectronic systems, we review the development of adaptive optics as an effective tool that allows using controllable optical elements to eliminate irregular distortions that occur as light propagates in an inhomogeneous medium. The subject matter of this rapidly developing field of science and technology is described. Of the ideas under development in recent years, many have been around for quite a long time, but it is only now, with the development of an up-to-date optoelectronic element base, that they have started being widely incorporated into science and engineering practice. We discuss the development of adaptive optics from mere ideas to their application in astronomy, high-power laser physics, and medicine. The current state of adaptive optics in stellar and solar astronomy is reviewed, and some results of its use in distortion correction systems of high-power laser systems and facilities are presented.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3367/UFNe.0184.201406b.0599/pdf

Adaptive optics in the formation of optical beams and images

Planar optical chirality of a metasurface measures its differential response between left and right circularly polarized (CP) lights and governs the asymmetric transmission of CP lights. In 2D ultra-thin plasmonic structures the circular dichroism is limited to 25% in theory and it requires high absorption loss. Here we propose and numerically demonstrate a planar chiral all-dielectric metasurface that exhibits giant circular dichroism and transmission asymmetry over 0.8 for circularly polarized lights with negligible loss, without bringing in bianisotropy or violating reciprocity. The metasurface consists of arrays of high refractive index germanium Z-shape resonators that break the in-plane mirror symmetry and induce cross-polarization conversion. Furthermore, at the transmission peak of one handedness, the transmitted light is efficiently converted into the opposite circular polarization state, with a designated geometric phase depending on the orientation angle of the optical element. In this way, the optical component sets before and after the metasurface to filter the light of certain circular polarization states are not needed and the metasurface can function under any linear polarization, in contrast to the conventional setup for geometry phase based metasurfaces. Anomalous transmission and two-dimensional holography based on the geometric phase chiral metasurface are numerically demonstrate as proofs of concept.

All-dielectric planar chiral metasurface with gradient geometric phase.

We propose a new class of computer generated holograms whose far fields possess designer-specified polarization response. We dub these Jones matrix holograms. We provide a simple procedure for their implementation using form-birefringent metasurfaces. Jones matrix holography generalizes a wide body of past work with a consistent mathematical framework, particularly in the field of metasurfaces, and suggests previously unrealized devices, examples of which are demonstrated here. In particular, we demonstrate holograms whose far-fields implement parallel polarization analysis and custom waveplate-like behavior.

Jones matrix holography with metasurfaces

The complete characterization of an ultrashort laser beam ultimately requires the determination of its spatio-temporal electric field E(x, y, t), or its spatio-spectral counterpart Ẽ(x, y, ω). We describe a new measurement technique called INSIGHT, which determines Ẽ(x, y, ω), up to an unknown spatially-homogeneous spectral phase. Combining this information with a temporal measurement at a single point of the beam then enables the determination of the spatio-temporal field E(x, y, t). This technique is based on the combination of spatially-resolved Fourier-transform spectroscopy with an alternate-projection phase-retrieval algorithm. It can be applied to any reproducible laser source with a repetition rate higher than about 0.1 Hz, relies on a very simple device, does not require any reference beam, and circumvents the difficulty associated with the manipulation of large beam diameters by working in the vicinity of the beam focus. We demonstrate INSIGHT on a 100 TW-25 fs laser, and use the measurement results to introduce new representations for the analysis of spatio-temporal/spectral couplings of ultrashort lasers.

Spatio-spectral metrology at focus of ultrashort lasers: a phase-retrieval approach.

Two-Photon Lithography, thanks to its very high sub-diffraction resolution, has become the lithographic technique par excellence in applications requiring small feature sizes and complex 3D pattering. Despite this, the fabrication times required for extended structures remain much longer than those of other competing techniques (UV mask lithography, nanoimprinting, etc.). Its low throughput prevents its wide adoption in industrial applications. To increase it, over the years different solutions have been proposed, although their usage is difficult to generalize and may be limited depending on the specific application. A promising strategy to further increase the throughput of Two-Photon Lithography, opening a concrete window for its adoption in industry, lies in its combination with holography approaches: in this way it is possible to generate dozens of foci from a single laser beam, thus parallelizing the fabrication of periodic structures, or to engineer the intensity distribution on the writing plane in a complex way, obtaining 3D microstructures with a single exposure. Here, the fundamental concepts behind high-speed Two-Photon Lithography and its combination with holography are discussed, and the literary production of recent years that exploits such techniques is reviewed, and contextualized according to the topic covered. 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/adfm.202211773

Recent Advances on High‐Speed and Holographic Two‐Photon Direct Laser Writing

An original method is proposed to calculate the formation of specified far-field intensity distributions by a bimorph mirror in the case of initial transverse-multimode beams. The method is based on the Gerchberg—Saxton algorithm with replacement of the phase function in the plane of the control element by a function that takes into account both the intensity and phase distributions of each mode. The numerical results on the formation of a beam with the third-order super-Gaussian intensity distribution from beams composed of two or four lowest transverse modes are discussed. The experimental results on using the conventional Gerchberg—Saxton algorithm to form a desired intensity distribution from single-mode laser beams using a liquid-crystal modulator are presented.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1070/QE2009v039n06ABEH013642/pdf

Gerchberg—Saxton algorithm: experimental realisation and modification for the problem of formation of multimode laser beams

This paper presents an adaptive optical system intended for focusing the radiation of powerful processing lasers. The system consists of a wave-front corrector, a wave-front meter, and a software-hardware system for controlling the corrector. A flexible bimorph mirror is used as a corrector. An M2 sensor is used to analyze the radiation-focusing quality, making it possible to estimate such parameters of the laser radiation as the diameter, the divergence angle, and the quality parameter M2. The bimorph mirror is controlled by means of a combined method, based on gradient methods of searching for the extremum and a genetic algorithm. The system makes it possible to correct low-order aberrations and to estimate the focusing efficiency of the laser radiation.

An adaptive optical system for controlling laser radiation

This paper proposes a method of adjusting off-axis parabolic mirrors, based on the minimization of beam-quality parameter M². This method requires no additional adjustment elements and possesses adequate accuracy: 1% for the angular orientation of the mirror and 2.3% for the rms deviation of the M² value. An experimental technique is given for measuring and correcting the aberrations of strongly focusing off-axis optical elements. The technique is based on measuring the wave front by the Shack-Hartmann method. The aberrations were corrected using a controllable flexible mirror in the manual and automatic regimes by the aperture-probing and phase-conjugation methods, respectively. © 2005 Optical Society of America

/pdf/off-axis-parabolic-mirrors-a-method-of-adjusting-them-and-of-1zue87l7oa.pdf

Off-axis parabolic mirrors: A method of adjusting them and of measuring and correcting their aberrations

The size of the isoplanatism zone is determined on the basis of experimental measurements of aberrations of the eye for various positions of the test point on the retina of the eye. For the patients examined here, the angular size of the zone varied from 1.5° to 2.5°.

Isoplanatism of the optical system of the human eye

A new technology, ultraspectral imaging (USI) offers the capability to extend spectral imaging to a level where molecular adsorption or emission line features can be presented in a two dimensional display. With these capabilities, unambiguous identification and mapping of gaseous constituents or solid material by their spectral features becomes possible. One of the techniques that shows the potential to collect these type of data is a proposed USI based on a Fourier transform ultraspectral imager operating in the 3 /spl mu/m to 5 /spl mu/m and 8 /spl mu/m to 12 /spl mu/m bands designed for installation in an aircraft. This proposed instrument will have a 15 degree field of view (FOV), with an instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of 1.0 mrad. The target spectral resolution is better than 1.5 cm/sup -1/ over 2000 to 3000 cm/sup -1/ and 0.4 cm/sup -1/ over 850 to 1250 cm/sup -1/ using 512 spectral channels. The device will use a variety of spectral enhancement techniques to achieve this unprecedented spectral resolution. Computer simulations of the optical systems demonstrate subwavenumber resolutions and signal to noise ratios of over 900.

Ultraspectral imaging: a new contribution to global virtual presence

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