Both sex pheromones and male lures appear to play an important role in the mating systems of many species of economically important tephritid species. Typically, stationary males emit pheromone attractive to searching females, and recent evidence indicates that naturally occurring male lures may function as precursors in pheromone synthesis. Here, we review (i) the basic biology of sex pheromones and the importance of naturally occurring male lures as pheromone components or precursors and (ii) the use of sex pheromones and male lures as trap baits, primarily in fruit fly detection programs, for the major genera of Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, Rhagoletis, and Toxotrypana. Relatively few studies have examined the effectiveness of pheromone-based trapping, and most of these have involved only three species, the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), and the Caribbean fruit fly, A. suspensa (Loew). In general, the results have been inconsistent, with traps baited with live males or male pheromone extracts or components attracting more females than blanks or food-baited traps in some studies but not in others. This inconsistency, along with the chemical complexity of pheromones and the multimodal nature of sexual communication (where olfaction is but one of several sensory channels used in male signaling and courtship), has limited research on the development of pheromone baits. Male lures, on the other hand, have proven incredibly useful and consistently effective trap baits. The major male lures – methyl eugenol, cue-lure/raspberry ketone, and trimedlure – are discussed as are possible replacements/modifications, such as fluorinated analogues of methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone formate, zingerone, ceralure, and enriched ginger root oil. In addition, we discuss various factors influencing the efficacy of male lures, including fly age, prior lure ingestion, selection for non-responsiveness, interspecific differences in responsiveness, and the use of liquid versus solid dispensers.

https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9789401791922-c2.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1489583-p176778010

Pheromones, Male Lures, and Trapping of Tephritid Fruit Flies

The responses of the Queensland fruit fly to food-based lures were studied, with particular emphasis on the importance of ammonia as an attractant or repellent. Certain solutions of ammonium bicarbonate were found to be highly effective attractants for the Queensland fruit fly, provided they were tested in traps in which the retention of the flies did not depend on their contacting the bait solution. The attractancies of such solutions were found to be strongly dependent on concentration and pH, and mean attractancies more than five times that of the commercial protein hydrolysate used as a standard were obtained. Highest attractancies were associated with ammonia evolution rates in the region 5-25 ¦l ammonia (s.t.p.) h-1 100 ml-1 of solution; rates above 400 ¦1 ammonia (s.t.p.) h-1 100 ml-1 appeared to be repellent. The addition of a mixture of amino acids to the ammonium bicarbonate solutions under these trap conditions had no significant effect on their attractancy; but the addition of the standard protein hydrolysate to a 0.001 M solution of ammonium bicarbonate, with pH adjusted to 8.5, produced an outstandingly effective lure, with a mean attractancy almost nine times as great as the standard hydrolysate alone at its normal pH of 4.8. Subsequent experiments showed that simply raising the pH of the standard protein hydrolysate to 8.5 caused a similar high attractancy, which could be due in part to the marked rise in ammonia production from endogenous sources. Protein hydrolysate solutions showed pronounced increases in both ammonia production and fruit fly attractancy when microorganisms were allowed to flourish. No such increases occurred when the microorganisms were inhibited with a preservative. Evidence is also presented which indicates that carbon dioxide is mildly repellent to the Queensland fruit fly.

The importance of ammonia in proteinaceous attractants for fruit flies (Family: Tephritidae)

Augmentative releases of Diachasmimorpha tryoni (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to suppress a mediterranean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) population in Kula, Maui, Hawaii

The Evolution of Fruit Fly Feeding Behavior

Mass trapping has proven to be a powerful weapon in the control of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), and its application in Mediterranean countries has currently increased notably as a control method. In this study, the efficacy of newly developed traps and dispensers of attractants were assessed with the aim of finding the best trap and set the lifetime of the dispensers, thus improving the total efficacy of mass trapping. Efficacy trials with six different types of traps and six different types of female dispensers were carried out. Moreover, the lifetime of three female dispensers, including a new attractant composition dispenser with n-methyl pyrrolidine, were studied. Results show significant differences among the trap types using female attractants, with an advantage of nearly 3 times more catches in best trap. Tested female dispensers showed no significant differences in efficacy between trimethylamine and putrescine attractants regard n-methyl pyrrolidine, however we observed differences in lifetime between dispensers. Thus, there are significant differences among different types of traps and dispensers in efficacy, and the appropriate selection of the trap and dispenser will improve the mass trapping results.

/pdf/evaluation-of-traps-and-lures-for-mass-trapping-of-4nsp3hv1mp.pdf

Evaluation of traps and lures for mass trapping of Mediterranean fruit fly in citrus groves.

Five types of experimental sticky traps caught more native Mediterranean fruit flies (medflies), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), than a standard 0.95-liter plastic trap when placed in cool leeward areas of Hawaii at an elevation of 366 m. A trap made of a rectangular board (hung vertically) covered with Stikem® and baited with 2 small separate squares of cane fiberboard impregnated with trimedlure or with a layer of trimedlure applied under the Stikem was the most effective. When the traps were placed at windward sea-level sites, 3 of the experimental traps were equal or superior to the standard in 5 tests made with released sterile medflies. Generally, the number of medflies caught was proportional to the rate of volatilization of the trimedlure.

With melon flies, Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett, 3 of the experimental sticky traps (baited with cue-lure plus naled as the toxicant) caught more flies than the standard, but 2 (the coffee can and the V-shaped trap) were inferior. With a large population of oriental fruit flies, D. dorsalis Hendel, the same 2 traps and also the rectangular trap (baited with methyl cugenol plus naled) caught fewer flies than the standard, but two, the milk carton and the paired boards, caught as many as the standard.

Sticky Traps for Detection and Survey of Three Tephritids

Proteinaceous food baits in water traps were 20X more efficient in trapping oriental fruit flies, Dacus dorsalis Hendel, in a dry climate (less than 25 cm avg annual rainfall) than in a wet climate (400 cm). Greater efficiency also was observed in a dry climate with the melon fly, D. cucurbitae Coquillett, and the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann).

Tephritid Fruit Fly Trapping: Liquid Food Baits in High and Low Rainfall Climates

When the effectiveness of trap-lure combinations in capturing Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) was compared in Hawaii, the Steiner plastic trap baited with trimedlure proved to be the most sensitive. The McPhail invaginated glass trap baited with a solution of Protein Insecticide Bait no. 7 plus borax occasionally performed as well or better but was erratic. The Nadel trap baited with trimedlure caught fewer flies but should be considered because it is economical and easily serviced.

Trap-Lure Combinations for Surveys of Mediterranean Fruit Flies in Hawaii

Several synthesized formulations of substances indentified from volatiles of male Ceratitis Capitata (Wiedemann) were highly attractive to these males in field evaluations. In treatments exposed in Steiner plastic traps or in delta-shaped Jackson cardboard traps, methyl ( E )-6-nonenoate, the least complex of the formulations tested, was as attractive to males as trimedlure, the current standard lure for male Mediterranean fruit flies. Both substances remained attractive much longer when they were applied to cotton wicks placed in perforated polyethylene vial stoppers than when they were placed on cotton wicks not contained in vials. Neither the Z-isomer nor any of 3 positional isomers of methyl ( E )-6-nonenoate tested was attractive to either sex of Mediterranean fruit flies in laboratory bioassays.

Methyl (E)-6-Nonenoate: a New Mediterranean Fruit Fly Male Attractant

A plastic gallon trap with a dichlorvos plastic strip (Shell’s Vapona No Pest®) that provided fumigant action was as effective or more effective than the McPhail glass trap in trapping the oriental fruit fly, Dacus dorsalis Hendel, and melon fly, D. cucurbitae Coquillett. However, the glass trap was more effective in attracting and trapping the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis Capitata (Wiedemann).

Gallon Plastic Tub: a Substitute for the McPhail Trap

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