Enterococci are natural inhabitants of the intestinal tract in humans and many animals, including food-producing and companion animals They can easily contaminate the food and the environment, entering the food chain Moreover, Enterococcus is an important opportunistic pathogen, especially the species E faecalis and E faecium, causing a wide variety of infections This microorganism not only contains intrinsic resistance mechanisms to several antimicrobial agents, but also has the capacity to acquire new mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance In this review we analyze the diversity of enterococcal species and their distribution in the intestinal tract of animals Moreover, resistance mechanisms for different classes of antimicrobials of clinical relevance are reviewed, as well as the epidemiology of multidrug-resistant enterococci of animal origin, with special attention given to beta-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid The emergence of new antimicrobial resistance genes in enterococci of animal origin, such as optrA and cfr, is highlighted The molecular epidemiology and the population structure of E faecalis and E faecium isolates in farm and companion animals is presented Moreover, the types of plasmids that carry the antimicrobial resistance genes in enterococci of animal origin are reviewed

Antimicrobial Resistance in Enterococcus spp. of animal origin.

This systematic review describes what “the cutting edge vaccines for Aeromonas hydrophila are”. The focus is on types of high tech biotechnological based vaccines, target gene or antigen in developing these vaccines, and challenge model fish species used in vaccines efficacy testing. Vaccines delivery methods, immune response, and their efficacy, adjuvant or carrier systems used, and the overall experimental setup or design of the vaccines under investigation are also described. The search for the original papers published between 2009 and 2018 was conducted in June of 2018, using the PubMed and Google scholar electronic database. Twenty-three (23/4386) studies were included in the final assembly using PRISMA guidelines (Protocol not registered). Recombinant protein vaccines were the highly experimented type of the modern biotechnological based vaccines identified in the selected studies (16/23; 70%). Outer membrane proteins (OMPs) of different β-barrels were shown to be a potential antigenic entity for A. hydrophila vaccines (57%). Intraperitoneal route with conventional carries or adjuvants was the highly applied delivery system while very few studies used herbal based vaccine adjuvants and nanomaterial as a vaccine carrier. Variation was observed in terms of protection levels in the selected studies. The experimental designs partly contributed to the observed variation. Therefore, recombinant vaccines that use new carrier system technologies and delivered through oral route in feeds would have been of great value for use in the prevention and control of A. hydrophila infections in fish. Despite the usefulness as academic tools to identify what is important in pathogenicity of the etiological agent to the host fish, these vaccines are only economically viable in very high-value animals. Therefore, if vaccination is a good option for A. hydrophila group, then simple autogenous vaccines based on accurate typing and evidence-based definition of the epidemiological unit for their use would be the most viable approach in terms of both efficacy and economic feasibility especially in low and middle-income countries (LMIC).

/pdf/current-state-of-modern-biotechnological-based-aeromonas-3i5jucnx38.pdf

Current State of Modern Biotechnological-Based Aeromonas hydrophila Vaccines for Aquaculture: A Systematic Review.

Inland aquaculture contributed by three major fish groups, including carps, tilapias, and catfish plays a vital role in global food security and nutrition, particularly in low and middle-income countries. However, the sustainable development of this sector is hampered by disease epidemics, especially those caused by bacteria such as Aeromonas species. At least eight pathogenic motile Aeromonas species (A. hydrophila, A. veronii, A. jandaei, A. caviae, A. sobria, A. bestiarum, A. dhakensis and A. schubertii) have been reported in aquaculture with some causing up to 100% mortality during disease outbreaks. Simultaneously, emerging multidrug-resistant Aeromonas due to a long-inappropriate use of antibiotics is alarming and highlights a global public health concern and negative socioeconomic impacts. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of motile Aeromonas infections, antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance of Aeromonas species. This contribution also highlights the non-antibiotic approaches (the solutions for preventing or treating of bacterial diseases without resorting to antibiotic use) to control motile Aeromonas infections. In addition to the current state of knowledge and limitations of each prophylaxis/therapy, perspectives for future research are discussed critically, including oral/immersion multivalent vaccines, microencapsulated synbiotics, exogenous metabolites, and novel lytic bacteriophage cocktails. Some emerging applicable nanotechnology themes such as nanovaccines, nanobioactive compounds, and nanobubbles are also included in this review. In summary, combating motile Aeromonas infections in aquaculture, including multidrug-resistant aeromonads, as well as other bacterial diseases, is a lengthy battle that requires a strategic combination of multiple non-antibiotic approaches coherent with the One Health philosophy. 

Non‐antibiotic approaches to combat motile
 Aeromonas
 infections in aquaculture: Current state of knowledge and future perspectives

Genotyping, antimicrobial resistance and virulence factor gene profiles of vancomycin resistance Enterococcus faecalis isolated from blood culture.

Construction and analysis of the immune effect of Vibrio harveyi subunit vaccine and DNA vaccine encoding TssJ antigen

In this study, 72 Enterococcus faecalis isolates originating from humans (n=39), dogs (n=26) and cats (n=7) were investigated for some virulence factors, some virulence genes, antibiotic resistance phenotypes, randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) patterns and biofilm production. Of the isolates, 31 (43.1%) were positive for gelatinase, 11 (15.3%) for aggregation substance and cytolysine, 38 (52.8%) for gelE and 34 (47.2%) for asa1 genes. All isolates were found to be negative for hyl, esp and cylA genes. All isolates were found to be resistant to nalidixic acid and kanamycin. On the other hand, all isolates were cited for susceptible to amoxicillin. Vancomycin resistance genes (vanA, vanB, vanC1/C2 or vanD) have not been detected in any of the phenotypically vancomycin resistant isolates. Isolates from humans, dogs and cats were grouped into 8, 2 and 4 antibiotypes depending upon susceptibilities to 12 different antibiotics. In all human, dog and cat isolates, 9, 12 and 2 genotypes were determined by RAPD-PCR, respectively. Nine (34.6%) of the dog isolates were found to be positive for biofilm production. This study showed that multiple antibiotic resistance among human isolates is more frequent than in dog and cat isolates.

Characterization of Enterococcus faecalis isolates originating from different sources for their virulence factors and genes, antibiotic resistance patterns, genotypes and biofilm production.

Aeromonas hydrophila is known to be causative agent of an infection named as Bacterial haemorrhagic septicaemia or red pest in freshwater fish. The aim of this study was to develop and validate the glycoprotein-based fish vaccine against Aeromonas hydrophila. For this aim, after identification and characterization of A. hydrophila isolates from fish farms, one A. hydrophila isolate was selected as vaccine strain. Antigenic glycoproteins of this vaccine strain were determined by Western blotting and glycan detection kit. The connection types of these glycoproteins were examined by glycoprotein differentiation kit. Two glycoproteins, molecular weights of 19 and 38 kDa, with SNA connection type were selected for use in vaccination trials. After their purification by SNA-specific lectin and size-exclusion chromatography, protection studies with purified proteins were performed. For challenge trials, four experimental fish groups were designated: Group I (with montanide), Group II (with montanide and ginseng), Group III [with Al(OH)3 ] and Group IV [with Al(OH)3 and ginseng]. The survival ratings of fish were determined, and protection was calculated as 21.56%, 29.41%, 69.83% and 78.88% in groups I, II, III and IV, respectively. In conclusion, A. hydrophila glycoproteins with Al(OH)3 and ginseng could be used as a safe and effective vaccine for fish.

Development and validation of glycoprotein-based native-subunit vaccine for fish against Aeromonas hydrophila.

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Characterization of Enterococcus faecalis isolates originating from different sources for their virulence factors and genes, antibiotic resistance patterns, genotypes and biofilm production.

Development and validation of glycoprotein-based native-subunit vaccine for fish against Aeromonas hydrophila.