Atomic and electronic structures of semiconductor interfaces are explained, focusing on fundamental physics revealed by recent researches. To understand atomic structures, it is essential to understand how the interface is formed and how stable the interface is. We consider these by illustrating the epitaxial growth and oxidation processes and explaining key concepts such as the growth diagram, growth modes, stress release, and defect generation. On the other hand, the most important quantities to characterize the interface electronic structures are the Schottky barrier and the band offset, because they govern most transport and optical properties around interfaces. The origins of these quantities are explained, using key concepts such as the interface states, charge neutrality level, band bending, and Fermi-level pinning. Prospects for future trend of interface investigations are also illustrated.

Atomic Structures and Electronic Properties of Semiconductor Interfaces

Since the mid-1920s, different strands of research used stars as “physics laboratories” for investigating the nature of matter under extreme densities and pressures, impossible to realize on Earth. To trace this process this paper is following the evolution of the concept of a dense core in stars, which was important both for an understanding of stellar evolution and as a testing ground for the fast-evolving field of nuclear physics. In spite of the divide between physicists and astrophysicists, some key actors working in the cross-fertilized soil of overlapping but different scientific cultures formulated models and tentative theories that gradually evolved into more realistic and structured astrophysical objects. These investigations culminated in the first contact with general relativity in 1939, when J. Robert Oppenheimer and his students George Volkoff and Hartland Snyder systematically applied the theory to the dense core of a collapsing neutron star. This pioneering application of Einstein’s theory to an astrophysical compact object can be regarded as a milestone in the path eventually leading to the emergence of relativistic astrophysics in the early 1960s.

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Stellar Structure and Compact Objects before 1940: Towards Relativistic Astrophysics

We analyze the C(p)-T data for the glassy state of eight materials of varied molecular interactions and structures to investigate how the use of the C(p)d ln T integral in the time-dependent (nonreversible) thermodynamic path between a liquid and glass affects our estimates of the entropy. Since the change in entropy on such a path cannot be determined, we estimate the upper and lower values of the change, Δσ, from the C(p)d ln T integral. For the same rates of cooling and heating and without annealing, Δσ on the cooling path is negligibly different from that on the heating path. The difference is ∼1∕60th-1∕25th of the lowest known value of the residual entropy and even less than the configurational entropy of the supercooled liquid at its kinetic freezing temperature. Thus use of the C(p)d ln T integral in the nonreversible path does not introduce significant errors in estimating the residual entropy. Dynamic C(p) data cannot be used to infer that configurational entropy decreases on glass formation. Time dependence of the C(p)-T path has little consequence for reality of the residual entropy.

Entropy change on the cooling and heating paths between liquid and glass and the residual entropy

Clausius limits on cooling and heating through the liquid–glass range of three pharmaceuticals and one metal alloy—Annealing effects and residual entropy

A postulate that ergodicity and entropy continuously decrease to zero on cooling a liquid to a glassy state was used to support the view that glass has no residual entropy, and the features of mechanical relaxation spectra were cited as proof for the decrease. We investigate whether such spectra and the relaxation isochrones can serve as the proof. We find that an increase in the real component of elastic moduli with an increase in spectral frequency does not indicate continuous loss of ergodicity and entropy, and the spectra do not confirm isothermal glass transition or loss of entropy. Variation in ergodicity and entropy with the spectral frequency has untenable consequences for both thermodynamics and molecular dynamics and implies that, despite a broad distribution of its relaxation times, an equilibrium liquid can be considered as always ergodic. Perturbation from equilibrium used to obtain a spectrum does not have the effect of dynamic freezing and unfreezing, and Maxwell-Voigt models for the mechanical response function have neither the characteristic irreversibility of liquid-glass transition nor are commutable to ergodicity or entropy.

Mechanical relaxation and the notion of time-dependent extent of ergodicity during the glass transition.

Statistical Mechanics with Particular Reference to the Vapor Pressures and Entropies of Crystals

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Statistical Mechanics with Particular Reference to the Vapor Pressures and Entropies of Crystals