Additive manufacturing (AM) alias 3D printing translates computer-aided design (CAD) virtual 3D models into physical objects. By digital slicing of CAD, 3D scan, or tomography data, AM builds objects layer by layer without the need for molds or machining. AM enables decentralized fabrication of customized objects on demand by exploiting digital information storage and retrieval via the Internet. The ongoing transition from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing prompts new challenges for mechanical engineers and materials scientists alike. Because polymers are by far the most utilized class of materials for AM, this Review focuses on polymer processing and the development of polymers and advanced polymer systems specifically for AM. AM techniques covered include vat photopolymerization (stereolithography), powder bed fusion (SLS), material and binder jetting (inkjet and aerosol 3D printing), sheet lamination (LOM), extrusion (FDM, 3D dispensing, 3D fiber deposition, and 3D plotting), and 3D bioprinting....

Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing

The term photonic crystals appears because of the analogy between electron waves in crystals and the light waves in artificial periodic dielectric structures. During the recent years the investigation of one-, two-and three-dimensional periodic structures has attracted a widespread attention of the world optics community because of great potentiality of such structures in advanced applied optical fields. The interest in periodic structures has been stimulated by the fast development of semiconductor technology that now allows the fabrication of artificial structures, whose period is comparable with the wavelength of light in the visible and infrared ranges.

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/6354/16969/00781867.pdf

Photonic crystals

Two-photon excitation provides a means of activating chemical or physical processes with high spatial resolution in three dimensions and has made possible the development of three-dimensional fluorescence imaging, optical data storage, and lithographic microfabrication. These applications take advantage of the fact that the two-photon absorption probability depends quadratically on intensity, so under tight-focusing conditions, the absorption is confined at the focus to a volume of order λ3 (where λ is the laser wavelength). Any subsequent process, such as fluorescence or a photoinduced chemical reaction, is also localized in this small volume. Although three-dimensional data storage and microfabrication have been illustrated using two-photon-initiated polymerization of resins incorporating conventional ultraviolet-absorbing initiators, such photopolymer systems exhibit low photosensitivity as the initiators have small two-photon absorption cross-sections (δ). Consequently, this approach requires high laser power, and its widespread use remains impractical. Here we report on a class of π;-conjugated compounds that exhibit large δ (as high as 1, 250 × 10−50 cm4 s per photon) and enhanced two-photon sensitivity relative to ultraviolet initiators. Two-photon excitable resins based on these new initiators have been developed and used to demonstrate a scheme for three-dimensional data storage which permits fluorescent and refractive read-out, and the fabrication of three-dimensional micro-optical and micromechanical structures, including photonic-bandgap-type structures.

Two-photon polymerization initiators for three-dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication

The advent of negative index materials has spawned extensive research into metamaterials over the past decade. Metamaterials are attractive not only for their exotic electromagnetic properties, but also their promise for applications. A particular branch–the metamaterial perfect absorber (MPA)–has garnered interest due to the fact that it can achieve unity absorptivity of electromagnetic waves. Since its first experimental demonstration in 2008, the MPA has progressed significantly with designs shown across the electromagnetic spectrum, from microwave to optical. In this Progress Report we give an overview of the field and discuss a selection of examples and related applications. The ability of the MPA to exhibit extreme performance flexibility will be discussed and the theory underlying their operation and limitations will be established. Insight is given into what we can expect from this rapidly expanding field and future challenges will be addressed.

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/adma.201200674

Metamaterial Electromagnetic Wave Absorbers

Today cross-cutting approaches, where molecular engineering and clever processing are synergistically coupled, allow the chemist to tailor complex hybrid systems of various shapes with perfect mastery at different size scales, composition, functionality, and morphology. Hybrid materials with organic–inorganic or bio–inorganic character represent not only a new field of basic research but also, via their remarkable new properties and multifunctional nature, hybrids offer prospects for many new applications in extremely diverse fields. The description and discussion of the major applications of hybrid inorganic–organic (or biologic) materials are the major topic of this critical review. Indeed, today the very large set of accessible hybrid materials span a wide spectrum of properties which yield the emergence of innovative industrial applications in various domains such as optics, micro-electronics, transportation, health, energy, housing, and the environment among others (526 references).

Applications of advanced hybrid organic–inorganic nanomaterials: from laboratory to market

Fabrication of dielectric optical components for surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) by two-photon polymerization (2PP) is studied. This direct-write femtosecond laser technology provides a low-cost and flexible method for the fabrication and investigation of plasmonic structures and optical components. Using the 2PP technique, we fabricated narrow dielectric ridges with dimensions as small as 150 nm on metal surfaces. SPP excitation with the laser-fabricated structures and guiding along them are demonstrated.

/pdf/laser-fabricated-dielectric-optical-components-for-surface-1nhyhnz416.pdf

Laser-fabricated dielectric optical components for surface plasmon polaritons.

Renewed and growing interest in the field of surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) comes from a rapid advance of nanostructuring technologies. In this paper, we will report on the application of two-photon polymerization (2PP) technique for the fabrication of dielectric SPP-structures, which can be used for localization, guiding, and manipulation of SPPs on a subwavelength scale. This technology is based on nonlinear absorption of near-infrared femtosecond laser pulses. Resolutions down to 100 nm (and even better) are already achievable. Characterization of these structures is performed by leakage radiation microscopy. 2PP allows the fabrication of dielectric waveguides, splitters, and couplers directly on metal surfaces. The dielectric structures on metal films are demonstrated to be very efficient for the excitation of SPPs. Using these structures, one can achieve excitation and focusing of the resulting plasmon field.

Rapid laser prototyping of plasmonic components

Optical devices with micro- and nanooptical elements using polymers and, in particular nano-scaled organic–inorganic hybrid materials such as ORMOCER®s, will be beyond of the next generation of optical components. For the generation of photonic elements, 3D photonic bandgap materials have been proposed as the basis of many devices. In order to create complete 3D photonic bandgaps, materials enabling high refractive index contrast are needed. Combining suitable materials with highly sophisticated processing methods such as two-photon polymerization (2PP) using femtosecond lasers is a step towards novel photonic elements. The materials and the patterning process will be discussed with respect these applications. In order to demonstrate the potential of the 2PP method, different classes of materials are investigated. (© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Investigations on the generation of photonic crystals using two‐photon polymerization (2PP) of inorganic–organic hybrid polymers with ultra‐short laser pulses

Recent progress in three-dimensional microstructuring of photosensitive materials by femtosecond lasers has been reviewed. Due to the nonlinear nature of multiphoton laser-activated processing, application of ultrashort laser systems allows one to overcome the diffraction limit and to produce high-quality 3D microstructures with a subwavelength resolution. This is very powerful technology with many potential applications which have been briefly discussed in this chapter.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-0-387-30453-3_6.pdf

Three Dimensional Material Processing with Femtosecond Lasers

Surface plasmon polaritons have become a research area of great importance. We present theoretical investigations on the realization of components and Y-splitters for surface plasmon polaritons guided by dielectric-loaded waveguides. The effect of the limited resolution of the fabrication process on the characteristics of fabricated Y-splitters is analyzed. A more efficient and robust configuration of the Y-splitter for surface plasmon polaritons is proposed.

Novel efficient design of Y-splitter for surface plasmon polariton applications.

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