Despite widespread opposition to the English Only movement, support for bilingual education, and advocacy for language rights, many U.S. ESL educators continue to uphold the notion that English is the only acceptable medium of communication within the confines of the ESL classroom. Although the exclusive use of English in teaching ESL has come to be seen as a natural and commonsense practice which can be justified on pedagogical grounds, this article argues that it is rooted in a particular ideological perspective, rests on unexamined assumptions, and serves to reinforce inequities in the broader social order. Evidence from research and practice is presented which suggests that the rationale used to justify English only in the classroom is neither conclusive nor pedagogically sound. Further, the article details a growing body of evidence indicating that L1 and/or bilingual options are not only effective but necessary for adult ESL students with limited L1 literacy or schooling and that use of students' linguistic resources can be beneficial at all levels of ESL. Accounts from a number of projects, including two with which the author has been involved, document a range of uses for the native language in both initial literacy and ESL instruction for adults. Finally, because the issue of language choice is so intimately linked with issues of power, the article calls for reconceptualizing the notion of expertise to legitimate the knowledge and experience of nontraditional experts from the communities of the learners.

/pdf/reexamining-english-only-in-the-esl-classroom-4ja9brvs8h.pdf

Reexamining English Only in the ESL Classroom

The functions of formulaic language: an integrated model

This article considers the implications of two central constructs of sociocultural theory (SCT) for second language (L2) development: mediation and internalization. It first discusses Vygotsky's general theoretical claim that human mental activity arises as a consequence of the functional system formed by our biologically specified mental capacities and our culturally constructed symbolic artifacts. It then examines some of the L2 research that has investigated the extent to which L2 users are able to deploy their new language for cognitive mediation. Specific attention is given to the mediational function of L2 private speech and to the synchronization of gestures and speech from the perspective of Slobin's thinking for speaking framework, a framework that interfaces quite well with Vygotsky's theory. The second general topic addressed, internalization, is intimately connected to the first. It is argued that internalization of the features of a L2 takes place through imitation, especially as occurs in private speech. Imitation, based on recent neuroscience and child development research, is seen as an intentional and potentially transformative process rather than as rote mimicking. The research documents that L2 children and adults rely on imitation in their private speech when they encounter new linguistic affordances. What remains to be established is the connection between the linguistic features of private speech and those deployed by L2 speakers in their social performance. Finally, the article proposes that the study of how L2 learners internalize and develop the capacity to use conceptual and associated linguistic knowledge should move to the forefront of SCT L2 research and argues that a productive way of realizing this agenda is through the union of SCT and cognitive linguistics.

/pdf/sociocultural-theory-and-l2-state-of-the-art-ut2yloz5zq.pdf

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND L2: State of the Art

L'A. examine les principales differences existant entre la perspective traditionnelle et la perspective cognitive de la semantique des idiotismes. A travers une analyse detaillee de deux domaines conceptuels tres productifs d'idiotismes, le feu et la main, il tente de demontrer la nature systematique des idiotismes, les mecanismes cognitifs impliques dans la production d'idiotismes, et l'emergence de la signification idiomatique. Il termine en essayant de determiner si la perspective cognitiviste des idiotismes facilite leur enseignement et leur apprentissage. Il presente ainsi les resultats d'une experience informelle sur l'apprentissage d'idiotismes anglais par des locuteurs non-natifs

Idioms: A View from Cognitive Semantics

This chapter presents a model of second language reading that illustrates the evolution of research and thought from the 1970s and 1980s, characterized as being influenced extensively by schema theory and psycholinguistics, and from 1990s thought and research that investigated the interdependence of language and literacy hypothesis versus the threshold hypothesis. The chapter then synthesizes the perspectives by acknowledging the necessary components of a contemporary L2 reading model, including L1 literacy level, L2 knowledge level, recognizing the interactions of background knowledge, processing strategies, vocabulary level, relationships between and among various cognate and non-cognate L1s and L2s, as well as the need to examine emerging L1/L2 readers in addition to adult L2 readers. The review argues for a compensatory processing conceptualization: one that recognizes that knowledge sources act in an interactive, synergistic fashion, not an additive one. Finally, the chapter notes a set of impediments to conducting research in the field: assessing subjects in languages unknown to researchers and the assessment of L1 literacy in an array of languages, and concludes with the recognition that second language reading is a critical area for research and scholarship well beyond the borders of applied linguistics.

Progress and procrastination in second language reading

The study reported in this article investigated whether second language learners use knowledge of their first language to comprehend and produce idioms in the second language. Subjects were 12 Venezuelan advanced learners of English. Comprehension of 45 English idioms—15 identical in form and meaning to their Spanish equivalents, 15 similar to their Spanish equivalents, and 15 different from the corresponding Spanish idioms—was tested with a multiple-choice test and a definition test. Production of the same 45 idioms was tested with a discourse-completion test and a translation test. Results showed identical idioms were the easiest to comprehend and produce. Similar idioms were comprehended almost as well but showed interference from Spanish. Different idioms were the most difficult to comprehend and produce but showed less interference than similar idioms. Subjects used both inter- and intralingual strategies to produce idioms they did not know. Within each type, the idioms that were comprehended and produced most correctly were those which were frequently used and transparent and which had simple vocabulary and structure.

/pdf/don-t-put-your-leg-in-your-mouth-transfer-in-the-acquisition-2m44do2bg2.pdf

Don't Put Your Leg in Your Mouth: Transfer in the Acquisition of Idioms in a Second Language.

Hawkins, E. (1984). Awareness of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. James, C., & Garrett, P. (Eds.). (1991). Language awareness in the classroom. Harlow, England: Longman. Knowles, J. G. (1991). Life-history accounts as mirrors: A practical avenue for the conceptualization of reflection in teacher education. In J. Calderhead & P. Gates (Eds.), Conceptualizing reflection in teacher development (pp. 70-92). London: Falmer Press.

Language Teacher Educators Collaborative Conversations.

Forked Tongue: The Politics of Bilingual Education Rosalie Pedalino Porter.

While I generally agree with Irujo's TESOL Quarterly (Vol 25, No 1) review of Porter's Forked Tongue, there are some flaws in the review Irujo's most devastating criticisms of Porter are that (a) Porter gives a biased presentation of the research by ignoring studies that contradict her opinions, and (b) Porter misrepresents the research of others I fully agree but take issue with Irujo in that she barely scratched the surface of Porter's unscholarly misrepresentations Consider these examples which Irujo did not mention Porter's discussion of the Fairfax County ESL program illustrates the biased way she treats the research literature Referencing one report from the Fairfax school system, Porter concludes "These evaluations portray a program that is working well for its students" (p 148) No mention is made of Collier's (1987, 1987/1988) extensive evaluation of the program which concluded by recommending it be replaced with a transitional bilingual education (TBE) program Porter describes a report from El Paso (1987) which, according to Porter, concluded that an all-English immersion program was superior to TBE The report makes no such finding The experimental El Paso program is a dual bilingual immersion program in which the students are taught both Spanish and English: "BIP [Bilingual Immersion Program] is a bilingual program, students receive instruction in both English and Spanish" (El Paso Independent School

Comments on Suzanne Irujo's Review of Rosalie Pedalino Porter's: Forked Tongue: The Politics of Bilingual Education. The Reviewer Responds

Keith Baker takes issue with my review of Rosalie Porter's book Forked Tongue: The Politics of Bilingual Education because it "barely scratched the surface of Porter's unscholarly misrepresentations." I couldn't agree more and am grateful to Baker for calling attention to many of the defects of the book that I did not include in my review because of space constraints. Because Baker and I are essentially in agreement on the merits of the book in question, I will not respond to his comments point by point. However, I would like to clarify my position with regard to certain statements he makes. Baker says that I err "in accepting Porter's claims for the Newton program" because "there is no evidence offered in the book to support these . . claims." I did not accept Porter's claims; in fact, I specifically rejected her assertion that students in Newton or in any other all-English program could achieve grade-level equivalence in 1 to 3 years. My basis for rejecting these claims was the conflict with other research, particularly Collier (1987), and the fact that "she supplies no data to substantiate her claim" (p. 154). My statement that Newton could serve as a model for programs where native language instruction is not possible or not necessary was based on my own experience supervising student teachers in Newton's ESL classrooms. I have seen excellent teaching, a welldeveloped content-based curriculum, and students obviously making progress in English and in content areas. I did not imply that this program was more effective than a bilingual program would have been. Baker mentions Porter's allegations concerning efforts to block her dissertation. Because I had no personal knowledge of this incident, and could only have responded to it indirectly, as Baker does, I decided not to include it in my review. Instead, I directly refuted an incident that I was personally involved in (the MATSOL Executive Board meeting) where I knew Porter had twisted the facts to suit her own purposes. I hoped in this way to cast doubt on the veracity of everything Porter claimed. I apologize to Baker if I misstated the conclusions of Baker and de Kanter (1981). I should have reread the report, rather than relying on my memory of it, which may have been influenced by other people's interpretations (or misinterpretations) of this widely cited source. In returning to the original, however, I note a revealing change of perspective. In 1981, Baker and de Kanter claimed that

The Reviewer Responds

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