This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification the...

Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women's Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks:

Improved methods of assessment and research design have established a robust and causal association between stressful life events and major depressive episodes. The chapter reviews these developments briefly and attempts to identify gaps in the field and new directions in recent research. There are notable shortcomings in several important topics: measurement and evaluation of chronic stress and depression; exploration of potentially different processes of stress and depression associated with first-onset versus recurrent episodes; possible gender differences in exposure and reactivity to stressors; testing kindling/sensitization processes; longitudinal tests of diathesis-stress models; and understanding biological stress processes associated with naturally occurring stress and depressive outcomes. There is growing interest in moving away from unidirectional models of the stress-depression association, toward recognition of the effects of contexts and personal characteristics on the occurrence of stressors, and on the likelihood of progressive and dynamic relationships between stress and depression over time-including effects of childhood and lifetime stress exposure on later reactivity to stress.

/pdf/stress-and-depression-2zp4i7xmjt.pdf

Stress and Depression

From early adolescence through adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to experience depression. Many different explanations for this gender difference in depression have been offered, but none seems to fully explain it. Recent research has focused on gender differences in stress responses, and in exposure to certain stressors. I review this research and describe how gender differences in stress experiences and stress reactivity may interact to create women's greater vulnerability to depression.

/pdf/gender-differences-in-depression-33lg870ikq.pdf

Gender Differences in Depression

There are no gender differences in depression rates in prepubescent children, but, after the age of 15, girls and women are about twice as likely to be depressed as boys and men. In this article, three models for how gender differences in depression might develop in early adolescence are described a

The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence.

Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants.

/pdf/sex-differences-in-trauma-and-posttraumatic-stress-disorder-2z87gssboo.pdf

Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research.

Unipolar depression is nearly twice as prevalent is women as men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Several theories attempting to account for this disparity have been proposed, but none has yet systematically considered women's victimization experiences as a possible significant contributor to their high risk for later depression. One type of victimization that is much more common in females than males is child sexual abuse. Recent research indicates that the long-term effects of child sexual abuse include anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. In this paper, we review research suggesting that child sexual abuse can account for a significant portion of the differences in the rates of depression between females and males.

Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: Childhood sexual abuse.

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Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: Childhood sexual abuse.