As a practical and effective tool for quantitative in-plane deformation measurement of a planar object surface, two-dimensional digital image correlation (2D DIC) is now widely accepted and commonly used in the field of experimental mechanics. It directly provides full-field displacements to sub-pixel accuracy and full-field strains by comparing the digital images of a test object surface acquired before and after deformation. In this review, methodologies of the 2D DIC technique for displacement field measurement and strain field estimation are systematically reviewed and discussed. Detailed analyses of the measurement accuracy considering the influences of both experimental conditions and algorithm details are provided. Measures for achieving high accuracy deformation measurement using the 2D DIC technique are also recommended. Since microscale and nanoscale deformation measurement can easily be realized by combining the 2D DIC technique with high-spatial-resolution microscopes, the 2D DIC technique should find more applications in broad areas.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/20/6/062001/pdf

Two-dimensional digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement: a review

Damascene copper electroplating for on-chip interconnections, a process that we conceived and developed in the early 1990s, makes it possible to fill submicron trenches and vias with copper without creating a void or a seam and has thus proven superior to other technologies of copper deposition. We discuss here the relationship of additives in the plating bath to superfilling, the phenomenon that results in superconformal coverage, and we present a numerical model which accounts for the experimentally observed profile evolution of the plated metal.

Damascene copper electroplating for chip interconnections

This article is a personal review of the historical developments of digital image correlation (DIC) techniques, together with recent important advances and future goals. The historical developments of DIC techniques over the past 35 years are divided into a foundation-laying phase (1982–1999) and a boom phase (2000 to the present), and are traced by describing some of the milestones that have enabled new and/or better DIC measurements to be made. Important advances made to DIC since 2010 are reviewed, with an emphasis on new insights into the 2D-DIC system, new improvements to the correlation algorithm, and new developments in stereo-DIC systems. A summary of the current state-of-the-art DIC techniques is provided. Some further improvements that are needed and the future goals in the field are also envisioned.

Digital image correlation for surface deformation measurement: historical developments, recent advances and future goals

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) has been established as a flexible and effective technique to measure the displacements on specimen surface by matching the reference subsets in the undeformed image with the target subsets in the deformed image. With the existing DIC techniques, the user must rely on experience and intuition to manually define the size of the reference subset, which is found to be critical to the accuracy of measured displacements. In this paper, the problem of subset size selection in the DIC technique is investigated. Based on the Sum of Squared Differences (SSD) correlation criterion as well as the assumption that the gray intensity gradients of image noise are much lower than that of speckle image, a theoretical model of the displacement measurement accuracy of DIC is derived. The theoretical model indicates that the displacement measurement accuracy of DIC can be accurately predicted based on the variance of image noise and Sum of Square of Subset Intensity Gradients (SSSIG). The model further leads to a simple criterion for choosing a proper subset size for the DIC analysis. Numerical experiments have been performed to validate the proposed concepts, and the calculated results show good agreements with the theoretical predictions.

Study on subset size selection in digital image correlation for speckle patterns.

Mean intensity gradient: An effective global parameter for quality assessment of the speckle patterns used in digital image correlation

Study of optimal subset size in digital image correlation of speckle pattern images

In this paper we present the numerical and experimental analysis of thermomechanical deformation in high-aspect-ratio copper electroplated through-silicon vias (TSVs), which were fabricated by deep reactive ion etching, thermal oxidation, and bottom-up electroplating processes. Later, these TSVs were subjected to thermal cyclic loading of 25-125°C. Due to the significant mismatch in the coefficients of thermal expansion of silicon and copper, thermomechanical stress was generated at the copper-silicon interface. Detailed investigation of this stress is of prime importance as it is one of the main root-causes behind the crack formation and dielectric delamination at the interface. A three-dimensional finite element model of the copper-filled TSVs was built and simulation was performed to predict the theoretical distribution of thermomechanical deformation. A noncontact digital image speckle correlation technique was used for the in situ measurement of the thermal deformation and the thermomechanical stress. Thermomechanical shear strain at the copper-silicon oxide-silicon interface was found to be the significant deformation mode in these TSVs.

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Thermomechanical Deformation in High-Aspect-Ratio Electroplated Through-Silicon Vias

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Study of optimal subset size in digital image correlation of speckle pattern images

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Thermomechanical Deformation in High-Aspect-Ratio Electroplated Through-Silicon Vias