The term Little Ice Age was originally coined by F Matthesin 1939 to describe the most recent 4000 year climaticinterval (the Late Holocene) associated with a particularlydramatic series of mountain glacier advances and retreats,analogous to, though considerably more moderate than, thePleistocene glacial ﬂuctuations. This relatively prolongedperiod has now become known as the Neoglacial period.The term Little Ice Age is, instead, reserved for the mostextensive recent period of mountain glacier expansion and isconventionally deﬁned as the 16th–mid 19th century periodduring which European climate was most strongly impacted.This period begins with a trend towards enhanced glacialconditions in Europe following the warmer conditions ofthe so-called medieval warm period or medieval climaticoptimum of Europe (

http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/shared/articles/littleiceage.pdf

Little Ice Age

Kaolinite in pharmaceutics and biomedicine.

Synthetic membranes used in Franz diffusion cells for topical formulation quality assessment should provide least resistance to drug diffusion. In this study, the diffusion rates of ibuprofen across thirteen membranes were determined using Franz diffusion cells. Correlation of the membrane thickness, pore size and MWCO with drug fluxes was also made. The drug diffusion results showed that the porous membranes were categorized into high-flux (8-18 mg/cm²/h) and low-flux (0.1-3 mg/cm²/h) membranes. The drug fluxes did not show strong correlations (r² < 0.99) with membrane parameters. Synthetic membranes can give variable drug fluxes, thus investigators should be careful in choosing membrane for formulation quality assessment.

https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/2/2/209/pdf

A Comparative Study of Transmembrane Diffusion and Permeation of Ibuprofen across Synthetic Membranes Using Franz Diffusion Cells

The skin is the biggest organ of human body which acts as a protective barrier against deleterious agents. When this barrier is damaged, the organism promotes the healing process with several molecular and cellular mechanisms, in order to restore the physiological structure of the skin. The physiological control of wound healing depends on the correct balance among its different mechanisms. Any disruption in the balance of these mechanisms can lead to problems and delay in wound healing. The impairment of wound healing is linked to underlying factors as well as aging, nutrition, hypoxia, stress, infections, drugs, genetics, and chronic diseases. Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted to discover the correct approach and best therapies for wound healing, including surgical procedures and non-surgical treatments such as topical formulations, dressings, or skin substitutes. Thus, this general approach is necessary to facilitate the direction of further studies. This work provides updated concepts of physiological mechanisms, the factors that can interfere, and updated treatments used in skin wound healing.

https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/11/7/665/pdf

Cutaneous Wound Healing: An Update from Physiopathology to Current Therapies

Psoralen loaded liposomal nanocarriers for improved skin penetration and efficacy of topical PUVA in psoriasis.

In vitro release for topical drug products is carried out using a vertical diffusion cell system and a synthetic support membrane. The improvements in vertical diffusion cell design and automated procedures have been carefully studied and evaluated to establish their reproducibility and ruggedness of the experimental procedure. The data were analyzed using 90% confidence interval procedure developed and published by the US Food and Drug Administration in SUPAC-SS (Start Up and Post Approval Changes-Semi Solid) guidance.

In vitro release: comparative evaluation of vertical diffusion cell system and automated procedure.

This Stimuli article provides general information about the test methods that should be employed to ensure the quality and performance of topical and transdermal drug products. The term topical drug products refers to all formulations applied to the skin except transdermal delivery systems (TDS) or transdermal patches that will be addressed separately.

http://www.dissolutiontech.com/DTresour/201011Articles/DT201011_A02.pdf

Topical and Transdermal Drug Products

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In vitro release: comparative evaluation of vertical diffusion cell system and automated procedure.

Topical and Transdermal Drug Products