The book Inequality by Christopher Jencks is in one sense an arid waste of somewhat confusing and misleading statistics between chapter one and chapter nine, and, in another sense, a destructive, unscientific critique of American education and families. Jencks' interpretation comes down hard on his basic feeling that "The crucial problem today is that relatively few people view income inequality as a serious problem; indeed the Nixon administration apparently convinced itself that income was too equally distributed in 1968 and that the rich needed additional incentives to get even richer . The Kennedy and Johnson administrations were only marginally better. Neither made any explicit effort to equalize incomes; the subject was hardly discussed. Instead reformers focused on equalizing opportunity." This view is probably correct but it is no excuse for an unscholarly, unscientific polemic against far from "peripheral institutions," which is Jencks' evaluation of the American schools. This book states

Inequality, A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America.

The role of teachers has long been recognized as central to the delivery as well as to the quality of education. Although some of the assumptions concerning the contributing effect of the teacher variable on student achievement were challenged in the 1960s and 1970s in developed countries, recent empirical research revealed evidence of significant relationships between some teacher variables and student achievement. Results of research in developing countries have been less ambiguous and more supportive of the positive effect of teacher training on teacher performance and student achievement, but there is no indication that increasing the level of qualifications beyond a certain point produces better results. There seems to be a "bracket" of knowledge and skills that teachers must possess for teaching different subjects at different levels, below which they cannot teach effectively and above which additional preparation is not cost-effective. Moreover, recent pedagogical research has highlighted the importance of instructional time (amount and intensity of engagement in school learning)-particularly in situations where students lack the resources to develop into independent learners. This makes the role of teachers in developing countries very crucial in managing instructional tasks and teacher-centered activities. This paper reviews Bank experience in the treatment of these issues in project components involving training of primary and general secondary school teachers.

Teacher training : a review of World Bank experience

Test of a psychological cost-benefit model for career choice☆

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the cost effectiveness analysis in education. It is a technique for measuring the relationship between the total inputs, or costs, of a project or activity, and its outputs or objectives. Both costs and effectiveness must be quantified, but it is not necessary to measure them in monetary terms. Cost-effectiveness analysis can take two different forms. In the first case, a comparison is made between the alternative ways of achieving the same objective, to identify that with the lowest cost. The other method of using cost-effectiveness analysis is to compare two or more schools or other institutions with similar levels of cost to discover which achieves the highest level of output or results. Nevertheless, despite the difficulty of defining and measuring the output of education, it is necessary to find some way of comparing the efficiency of different institutions, of choosing between alternative methods of achieving the same or similar objectives, and of identifying the most effective ways of using educational resources.

Cost–Effectiveness Analysis in Education

Publisher Summary This chapter explains the social demand models. Social demand refers to the demand for education emerging from the needs and aspirations of individual persons as contrasted to educational demand based on the personnel requirements of society. It is difficult to find indicators of social demand that are not influenced by the supply of educational facilities. This is true not only for enrollment statistics in a situation of restricted admission but also for distributions of choices and applications when such information is available. Social demand is an important variable in educational planning at the stages where alternative pathways through the educational system are provided, that is, mainly in secondary and higher education. Social demand is the aggregated result of individual decisions in educational choice situations. Every individual decision can be seen as a compromise between preferences for and expectancies of a certain education. The individual's preferences and expectancies depend on both immediate and distant determinants in the choice situation. Educational systems are often conceptualized in two dimensions. The vertical dimension stands for length and level of education, the horizontal dimension for type or sector of education.

Social Demand Models

Stanley D. Nollen is assistant professor, School of Business Administration, Georgetown University. This paper was originally prepared for the National Academy of Education under a grant from the Ford Foundation. The author wishes to thank especially H. Thomas James and Mary Jean Bowman for their assistance. Henry M. Levin commented on an earlier draft. All errors remain the author's responsibility.

The Economics of Education: Research--Results and Needs.

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The Economics of Education: Research--Results and Needs.