Tropical peatlands store around one-sixth of the global peatland carbon pool (105 gigatonnes), equivalent to 30% of the carbon held in rainforest vegetation. Deforestation, drainage, fire and conversion to agricultural land threaten these ecosystems and their role in carbon sequestration. In this Review, we discuss the biogeochemistry of tropical peatlands and the impacts of ongoing anthropogenic modifications. Extensive peatlands are found in Southeast Asia, the Congo Basin and Amazonia, but their total global area remains unknown owing to inadequate data. Anthropogenic transformations result in high carbon loss and reduced carbon storage, increased greenhouse gas emissions, loss of hydrological integrity and peat subsidence accompanied by an enhanced risk of flooding. Moreover, the resulting nutrient storage and cycling changes necessitate fertilizer inputs to sustain crop production, further disturbing the ecosystem and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Under a warming climate, these impacts are likely to intensify, with both disturbed and intact peat swamps at risk of losing 20% of current carbon stocks by 2100. Improved measurement and observation of carbon pools and fluxes, along with process-based biogeochemical knowledge, is needed to support management strategies, protect tropical peatland carbon stocks and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Tropical peatlands hold around 105 gigatonnes of carbon but are increasingly affected by anthropogenic activities. This Review describes the biogeochemistry of these systems and how deforestation, fire, drainage and agriculture are disturbing them. 

/pdf/anthropogenic-impacts-on-lowland-tropical-peatland-1cjnuqt8.pdf

Anthropogenic impacts on lowland tropical peatland biogeochemistry

Indonesia has the second-largest biodiversity of any country in the world. Deforestation and forest degradation have caused a range of environmental issues, including habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity, deterioration of water quality and quantity, air pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. Forest restoration at the landscape level has been conducted to balance ecological integrity and human well-being. Forest restoration efforts are also aimed at reducing CO2 emissions and are closely related to Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) from the forestry sector. The purpose of this paper is to examine the regulatory, institutional, and policy aspects of forest restoration in Indonesia, as well as the implementation of forest restoration activities in the country. The article was written using a synoptic review approach to Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)-related articles and national experiences. Failures, success stories, and criteria and indicators for forest restoration success are all discussed. We also discuss the latest silvicultural techniques for the success of the forest restoration program. Restoration governance in Indonesia has focused on the wetland ecosystem such as peatlands and mangroves, but due to the severely degraded condition of many forests, the government has by necessity opted for active restoration involving the planting and establishment of livelihood options. The government has adapted its restoration approach from the early focus on ecological restoration to more forest landscape restoration, which recognizes that involving the local community in restoration activities is critical for the success of forest restoration.

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/11/3/328/pdf?version=1645698006

Tropical Forest Landscape Restoration in Indonesia: A Review

Tropical peatlands are fragile ecosystems with an important role in conserving biodiversity, water quality and availability, preventing floods, soil intrusion, erosion and sedimentation, and providing a livelihood for people. However, due to illegal logging, fire and conversion into other land use, the peatlands in Indonesia are under serious threat. Efforts to restore Indonesia’s tropical peatlands have been accelerated by the establishment of the Peatland Restoration Agency in early 2016. The restoration action policy includes the rewetting, revegetation and revitalisation of local livelihood (known as the 3Rs). This paper summarises the regulatory, institutional and planning aspects of peatland restoration, in addition to the implementation of the 3Rs in Indonesia, including failures, success stories, and the criteria and indicators for the success of peatland restoration.

Restoration of Degraded Tropical Peatland in Indonesia: A Review

Abstract. Peatlands store large amounts of soil carbon and freshwater, constituting an important component of the global carbon and hydrologic cycles. Accurate information on the global extent and distribution of peatlands is presently lacking but is needed by Earth System Models (ESMs) to simulate the effects of climate change on the global carbon and hydrologic balance. Here, we present Peat-ML, a spatially continuous global map of peatland fractional coverage generated using machine learning techniques suitable for use as a prescribed geophysical field in an ESM. Inputs to our statistical model follow drivers of peatland formation and include spatially distributed climate, geomorphological and soil data, along with remotely-sensed vegetation indices. Available maps of peatland fractional coverage for 14 relatively extensive regions were used along with mapped ecoregions of non-peatland areas to train the statistical model. In addition to qualitative comparisons to other maps in the literature, we estimated model error in two ways. The first estimate used the training data in a blocked leave-one-out cross-validation strategy designed to minimize the influence of spatial autocorrelation. That approach yielded an average r2 of 0.73 with a root mean squared error and mean bias error of 9.11 % and −0.36 %, respectively. Our second error estimate was generated by comparing Peat-ML against a high-quality, extensively ground-truthed map generated by Ducks Unlimited Canada for the Canadian Boreal Plains region. This comparison suggests our map to be of comparable quality to mapping products generated through more traditional approaches, at least for boreal peatlands.


/pdf/a-map-of-global-peatland-extent-created-using-machine-hzedetpc.pdf

A map of global peatland extent created using machine learning (Peat-ML)

Using machine learning algorithms to predict groundwater levels in Indonesian tropical peatlands

Revisiting tropical peatlands in Indonesia: Semi-detailed mapping, extent and depth distribution assessment

Laju pertumbuhan penduduk tidak seimbang dengan laju pertambahan lahan pertanian. Akibatnya, jumlah petani gurem dengan kepemilikan lahan kurang dari 0,50 ha bertambah dari 10,80 juta rumah tangga petani (RTP) pada tahun 1993 menjadi lebih dari 15 juta RTP pada 2010. Selain itu, konversi lahan, degradasi lahan dan air, perubahan iklim, dan kerusakan lingkungan menjadi kendala utama dalam pembangunan pertanian di masa yang akan datang. Apabila konversi lahan dapat ditekan 60.000 ha/tahun dan sawah baru bertambah 67.700 ha/tahun maka luas lahan yang dibutuhkan untuk mempertahankan swasembada beras dan pangan lainnya sampai tahun 2020 secara kumulatif mencapai 1,61 juta ha atau 6,08 juta ha hingga tahun 2050. Untuk lahan kering diperlukan perluasan sekitar 11,75 juta ha menjelang tahun 2050. Apabila kebutuhan energi juga akan dipasok dari bahan baku pangan (jagung, kedelai, ubi kayu, tebu, kelapa, kelapa sawit) maka lahan yang dibutuhkan makin luas. Berdasarkan sifat biofisik, lahan yang sesuai untuk pertanian dan saat ini belum dimanfaatkan mencapai 30,67 juta ha dan 8,28 juta ha di antaranya sesuai untuk sawah. Lahan tersebut belum diketahui status kepemilikannya, tetapi sebagian besar (20,40 juta ha) berada di kawasan hutan (hutan produksi, hutan konversi, HPH) dan 10,30 juta ha berada di kawasan budi daya pertanian. Selain dengan perluasan, pemanfaatan lahan perlu dioptimalkan melalui intensifikasi, peningkatan intensitas tanam (IP200, IP300, IP400), pengembangan inovasi teknologi, perbaikan pengelolaan DAS, konservasi tanah dan air, serta perlindungan lahan terhadap konversi, penelantaran, dan degradasi.

https://ejurnal.litbang.pertanian.go.id/index.php/jppp/article/download/3449/2923

Potensi dan Ketersediaan Sumberdaya Lahan untuk Mendukung Ketahanan Pangan

Abstrak .  Pemetaan tanah semidetail skala 1:50.000 mengidentifikasi sekurangnya 1.628.485 ha lahan di Sulawesi tanahnya berkembang dari batuan ultrabasik. Permasalahannya adalah tanah-tanah mengandung nikel (Ni) dan kromium (Cr) serta logam berat lainnya dalam konsentrasi tinggi. Kondisi ini dapat meracuni tanaman, yang pada akhirnya membahayakan kesehatan hewan dan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat penting mengetahui kadar logam berat, terlebih potensi toksiknya terhadap tanaman, dan memberikan arahan pengelolaan untuk pertanian. Sebanyak enam profil terpilih yang berasal dari  Kolaka (Sulawesi Tenggara), Luwu Timur (Sulawesi Selatan) dan Morowali (Sulawesi Tengah) telah dideskripsi, dan 29 contoh tanah yang berasal dari 6 profil (HK-16, UY-16, SL-34, SL-09, RM-07 dan YY-09) telah dianalisis kandungan logam berat, mineralogi (komposisi mineral pasir dan liat), dan sifat kimia tanahnya. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan tanah yang berkembang dari batuan ultrabasik (peridotit dan serpentinit) telah mengalami pelapukan lanjut, ditunjukkan oleh warna tanah merah gelap/maron (hue 2.5YR -10R); mineral pasir didominasi oleh mineral resisten (opak, kuarsa, garnet, enstatit dan khlorit); mineral liat didominasi kaolinit dan goetit ditunjukkan pada puncak difraksi 7.3oA dan 4.15-4.16oA. Kesuburan tanah rendah sampai sangat rendah dicirikan oleh kandungan bahan organik, kadar P2O5 dan K2O potensial dan P-tersedia yang umumnya rendah sampai sangat rendah. Basa-basa dapat ditukar rendah, kecuali Mg2+. KTK-tanah dan KTK-liat rendah ( 1,5 cmol(+)/kg, kecuali profil YY-09 dan SL-34 mempunyai KTK efektif 1.5 cmol (+)/kg, except the YY-09 and SL-34 profiles characterizing the acric properties which have effective-CEC <1.5 cmol (+)kg-1. Very high Ni and Cr concentrations exceeded the safety threshold (70 ppm for Ni and 600-1000 ppm for Cr), 670-1508 ppm and 1230-1829 ppm respectively. The concentration of boron (B) and manganese (Mn) is also very high , especially on the SL-09 profile. Soil pH is 3.9-7.0 and colloidal charges are generally negative, causing Si solubility to be higher than Cr, as a result Ni cations are strongly bound to the surface of soil particles, making them more easily absorbed and poison plants. Therefore, suggestions for soil management to suppress Si solubility are: 1) giving organic matter, 2) planting agricultural lime in the form of CaCO3), and 3) planting crops that are not consumed directly, e.g. forestry crops.

https://ejurnal.litbang.pertanian.go.id/index.php/jti/article/download/9321/Erna5.pdf

Tanah-tanah Dari Batuan Ultrabasik di Sulawesi: Kandungan Logam Berat dan Arahan Pengelolaan untuk Pertanian

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Revisiting tropical peatlands in Indonesia: Semi-detailed mapping, extent and depth distribution assessment

Potensi dan Ketersediaan Sumberdaya Lahan untuk Mendukung Ketahanan Pangan

Tanah-tanah Dari Batuan Ultrabasik di Sulawesi: Kandungan Logam Berat dan Arahan Pengelolaan untuk Pertanian