Global climate change is a change in the long-term weather patterns that characterize the regions of the world. Scientists state unequivocally that the earth is warming. Natural climate variability alone cannot explain this trend. Human activities, especially the burning of coal and oil, have warmed the earth by dramatically increasing the concentrations of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. The more of these gases humans put into the atmosphere, the more the earth will warm in the decades and centuries ahead. The impacts of warming can already be observed in many places, from rising sea levels to melting snow and ice to changing weather patterns. Climate change is already affecting ecosystems, freshwater supplies, and human health. Although climate change cannot be avoided entirely, the most severe impacts of climate change can be avoided by substantially reducing the amount of heat-trapping gases released into the atmosphere. However, the time available for beginning serious action to avoid severe global consequences is growing short. This paper reviews assessing of such climate change impacts on various components of the ecosystem such as air, water, plants, animals and human beings, with special emphasis on economy. The most daunting problem of global warming is also discussed. This paper, further reviews the mitigation measures, with a special focus on carbon sequestration and clean development mechanism (CDM). The importance of synergy between climate change mitigation and adaptation has been discussed. An overview of the relationship between economy and emissions, including Carbon Tax and Emission Trading and the policies are also presented.

A review of climate change, mitigation and adaptation

https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000080671/6989317

A quantitative review of relationships between ecosystem services

Assessing trade-offs between carbon sequestration and timber production within a framework of multi-purpose forestry in Austria

Ecosystems provide multiple ecosystem services to society. Ignoring the multi-functionality of land systems in natural resource management generates potentially trade-offs with respect to the provisioning of ecosystem services. Understanding relationships between ecosystem services can therefore help to minimize undesired trade-offs and enhance synergies. The research on relationships between ecosystem services has recently gained increasing attention in the scientific community. However, a synthesis on existing knowledge and knowledge gaps is missing so far. We analyzed 67 case studies that studied 476 pairwise combinations of ecosystem services. The relationships between these pairs of ecosystem services were classified into three categories: "tradeo ff", "synergy" or "no-effect". Most pairs of ecosystem services (74%) had a clear association with one category: the majority of case studies reported similar relationships for pairs of ecosystem services. A synergistic relationship was dominant between different regulating services and between different cultural services, whereas the relationship between regulating and provisioning services was trade-off dominated. Increases in cultural services did not influence provisioning services ("no-effect"). We further analyzed the pattern of relationships between ecosystem services across scales, land system archetypes and methods used to determine the relationship. Our analysis showed that the overall pattern of relationships between ecosystem services did not change significantly with scale and land system archetypes. However, some pairs of ecosystem services showed changes in relationships with scale. The choice of methods used to determine the relationship had an effect on the direction of the relationship: studies that employed correlation coefficients showed an increased probability to identify no-effect relationships, whereas descriptive methods had a higher probability of identifying trade-offs. The regional scale was the most commonly considered, and case studies were biased among different land system archetypes which might affect our ability to find the effect of scale or land system archetypes on the pattern of relationships. Our results provide helpful information of which services to include in ecosystem services assessments for the scientific community as well as for practitioners. Furthermore, they allow a first check if critical trade-offs have been considered in an analysis.

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2015/08/10/017467.full.pdf

We present a ‘concept matching’ systematic review linking the classes of the Common International Classification for Ecosystem Services (CICES, v4.3) to the ways scientists define and apply ES indicators in published studies. With the dual aim of creating an overview how the different services are measured in the studies, and determining if CICES provides an appropriate structure to accommodate the ES assessed in the practical literature, we reviewed 85 scientific papers from which 440 indicators were identified. Almost all CICES classes were represented, with cultural and some regulating (e.g. global climate regulation, pollination) ES being the most frequently considered. The four most frequently studied CICES classes (or class clusters) were global climate regulation, aesthetic beauty, recreation, and bio-remediation. Regulating and cultural services were more often assessed than provisioning services. Normalisation to unit area and time was common for indicators of several regulating and provisioning ES. Scores were most frequently used for cultural ES (except recreation) and some regulating services (e.g. flood protection). Altogether 20% of the ES indicators were quantified as an economic value, and monetisation is most frequently done for cultural and provisioning ES. Few regulating services, on the other hand, were monetised (including ones, like global climate regulation, for which appropriate techniques are relatively easily available). The work enabled a library of indicators to be compiled and made available. The findings can be used to help improve CICES so that it can provide a more robust and comprehensive framework for ecosystem assessments.

Where concepts meet the real world: A systematic review of ecosystem service indicators and their classification using CICES

A model for regional analysis of carbon sequestration and timber production

Forests make up large ecosystems and by the uptake of carbon dioxide can play an important role in mitigating the greenhouse effect. In this study, mitigation of carbon emissions through carbon uptake and storage in forest biomass and the use of forest biofuel for fossil fuel substitution were considered. The analysis was performed for a 3.2 million hectare region in northern Sweden. The objective was to maximize net present value for harvested timber, biofuel production and carbon sequestration. A carbon price for build-up of carbon storage and for emissions from harvested forest products was introduced to achieve an economic value for carbon sequestration. Forest development was simulated using an optimizing stand-level planning model, and the solution for the whole region was found using linear programming. A range of carbon prices was used to study the effect on harvest levels and carbon sequestration. At a zero carbon price, the mean annual harvest level was 5.4 million m3, the mean annual carbon sequestration in forest biomass was 1.48 million tonnes and the mean annual replacement of carbon from fossil fuel with forest biofuel was 61 000 tonnes. Increasing the carbon price led to decreasing harvest levels of timber and decreasing harvest levels of forest biofuel. Also, thinning activities decreased more than clear-cut activities when the carbon prices increased. The level of carbon sequestration was governed by the harvest level and the site productivity. This led to varying results for different parts of the region.

/pdf/modeling-carbon-sequestration-and-timber-production-in-a-ddjnv1f7ua.pdf

Modeling Carbon Sequestration and Timber Production in a Regional Case Study

The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has increased since pre-industrial time and a further increase is expected to lead to profound global climate change. Forests can play an important role in counteracting green house gas emissions as they are ubiquitous and are one of the currently available mechanisms for mitigating the increase of atmospheric CO₂. This thesis focuses on how carbon sequestration considerations can be incorporated in forest management analysis and planning. In Paper I the carbon status of forest biomass and soil in forest stands in southern Sweden were scrutinized under various thinning regimes and fertilization programmes. Biofuel production was also considered. Thinning and biofuel harvest decreased on-site carbon sequestration. Off-site forest carbon storage in products and fossil fuel substitution were, however, not considered. In Paper II an optimizing model that could handle a large forest area and the monetary value for carbon sequestration was presented. The objective was to maximize the net present value of harvested timber, biofuel production and carbon sequestration. The model was applied to the county of Vasterbotten (3.2 million hectares) in northern Sweden using Swedish National Forest Inventory data. Applying a monetary value to carbon sequestration increased carbon storage and decreased harvest levels. In Paper III the model developed in the previous paper was used to model short–and long-term potential carbon sequestration together with timber and biofuel production. In-depth analyses of the same data set as in Paper II, i.e., the county of Vasterbotten, were performed. Carbon prices ranged from zero up to the same level as the Swedish carbon dioxide tax (2310 SEK per tonne C). Harvest levels ceased at about 1000 SEK per tonne C. The decrease in harvest was more pronounced in the western low productive areas of the county. The focus in Paper IV was to investigate the impacts of climate change uncertainty in solutions to forest management problems for typical Swedish stands. Only the effect of raised temperature was considered. The economic value increased almost 5 % when the maximum temperature trend (+6.0°C) was applied, compared to the value under the minimum trend (+2.5°C). However, the economic importance of optimizing management plans according to the correct temperature scenario appeared to be limited.

/pdf/forest-management-strategies-for-co-mitigation-3bahdove97.pdf

Forest management strategies for CO₂ mitigation

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A model for regional analysis of carbon sequestration and timber production

Modeling Carbon Sequestration and Timber Production in a Regional Case Study

Forest management strategies for CO₂ mitigation