Salt damage is one of the most important causes of the destruction of earthen heritage sites. The study of salt distribution is of great significance for identifying potential erosion patterns of earthen heritage sites. In previous studies, the salt distributions in only a few earthen heritage sites have been analysed. In this study, 35 typical earthen heritage sites in northern China were investigated that are more widely distributed and more universal than those in previous studies. The salt content and natural water content at different locations on the earthen wall were compared, and the differences in the soluble-salt distribution for different regions of northern China were explored. The results show that the salt content of the loose layer was higher than that of the surface crust, except in the Subash Buddhist Ruins. The difference for the Subash Buddhist Ruins may be the special dual-porosity structure with inter-aggregate pores (large pores) and intra-aggregate pores (small pores) in the coarse-grained soil. The threat of soluble salt to earthen heritage sites in northeast China was found to be far less than that in northwest China, which may have been caused by different rainfall and evaporation intensities. Finally, the reasons for the salt distribution, the prevention of salt damage, and the application of the results to earthen heritage sites in northern China were examined. 

Salt distribution of earthen heritage site wall and its mechanism in northern China

Research progress on the development mechanism and exploratory protection of the scaling off on earthen sites in NW China

Degradation phenomena of Templo Pintado painted plasters

ABSTRACTThis study investigates the erosive impact of wind-blown sand on earthen sites within arid environments through the establishment of meteorological observation equipment. Over a span of 47 months, a comprehensive approach encompassing numerical simulation, plume analysis, particle examination, three-dimensional scanning, and photo monitoring was employed to continuously monitor the patterns of wind-blown sand movement and the degradation of test walls. The study identifies six distinct zones extending from five times the windward side to ten times the leeward side of the test wall’s height. Notably, a negative correlation between captured particle mass and the height of the sand traps is observed, with 70% of particles concentrated within 50 cm from the base of the test wall. Three primary erosion mechanisms for wind-blown sand are elucidated, including frontal impact, side abrasion, and reverse sapping. Furthermore, the study highlights pronounced erosion at the base of the wall due to vortex flow, with depth erosion affecting the lower, side, and upper sections of the test walls. This paper delves into the erosion mechanisms and operational models of wind-blown sand flow surrounding discontinuous site walls, offering valuable insights for the conservation of ancient earthen sites.KEYWORDS: Ancient earthen siteserosion modelerosion ratewind-blown sand AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thank F. Qiu, G.J. Zhao, X.S. Zhang, D.J. Shang, and X.Y. Liu for their help in sample collection, 3D scanning, measurements, and field experiments throughout the fieldwork period.Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Author contributionsConceptualization: Q.L. Guo, Q.Q. Pei, H. Zhang, H. Viles, J. Richards; Establishment of monitoring stations: Q.L. Guo, Q.Q. Pei, B. Zhang, H.T. Zhang, F. Qiu; Field experiments and test wall ramming: B. Zhang, Q.Q. Pei; H.T. ZHAN; Indoor experiments: B. Zhang J.J. Huang; Data curation: J.J. Huang,B. Zhang; Writing-original draft: Q.L. Guo, J.J. Huang, Q.Q. Pei; Writing-review & editing: Q.L. Guo, Q.Q. Pei, H. Viles, J.J. Huang.Data Availability materialThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.Additional informationFundingThis work was financially supported by National key research and development program for Study on deterioration process and conservation technology of earthen site based on condition of multi-field coupling (2020YFC1522200), and the Research and Application of Comprehensive Anti-Weathering Technologies for Earthen Sites on the Chang ‘An-Tianshan Corridor Road Network along the Silk Road (18YF1WA003), and the International Cooperation Project for Conservation of Earthen Sites in NW China between the Dunhuang Academy of China and the University of Oxford, UK. This research was also partially funded by UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Grant for the Centre for Doctoral Training Science and Engineering in Art, Heritage and Archaeology (EP/L016036/1) in association with the Getty Conservation Institute, and Royal Society International Exchange Grant (IE151144). 

Erosion Model for Wind-Blown Sand Flow at Earthen Sites in Arid Environment, Northwest China

Trees possess the potential to safeguard outdoor cultural heritage through the regulation of microclimates in their surroundings. The Leaf Area Index (LAI), a collective measure of the foliar portion within vegetation structure, reflects the regulatory ability of trees. In this study, numerical simulations were performed to compare the hygrothermal conditions of the Nanjing City Wall facing four orientations under the influence of evergreen trees with four LAI values, while also assessing the potential risks of salt weathering and algal growth. The results were as follows: 1) under the protective canopy of trees with identical LAI, the west and east walls experienced the highest temperature fluctuations, followed by the south and north sides. Wall surface temperature fluctuation was negatively correlated with LAI; 2) except for LAI = 1.5, the north wall had the least water content fluctuation under equivalent LAI levels. Water content fluctuation generally exhibited a decreasing trend with rising LAI; 3) at the same LAI level, the south wall presented the highest risk of salt weathering (including efflorescence and subflorescence), whereas the north wall faced the lowest risk. The risk of salt weathering decreased with an increase in LAI; 4) When shielded by trees with identical LAI, the north wall exhibited the greatest risk of algal growth, while the east wall faced least the risk. Higher LAI values were associated with an increased risk of algal growth on the wall surface. These results could provide a theoretical basis for large outdoor immovable heritage conservation and plant management around heritage sites. 

Effects of tree density variations on outdoor heritage conservation: Numerical study of an ancient brick city wall with four orientations

Quantitative research on the development difference of scaling off on the sunward side and nightside of earthen sites

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Quantitative research on the development difference of scaling off on the sunward side and nightside of earthen sites