3D pixel sensors aimed at the upgrades of the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the High Luminosity LHC have small pixel size and pretty dense layouts. In addition, modified 3D designs with small pixel size and trenched electrodes in place of columnar electrodes are being developed to optimize the pixel timing performance in view of the LHCb upgrade. The fabrication of these advanced 3D pixels is challenging from the lithographical point of view. This motivated the use of stepper lithography at FBK in place of a standard mask aligner. The small minimum feature size and high alignment accuracy of stepper allow a good definition of the sensor geometries also in the most critical layouts, so that a higher fabrication yield can be obtained. In this paper, we will present the main design and technological issues and discuss their impact on the electrical characteristics of 3D pixel sensors of different geometries.

Advances in 3D Sensor Technology by Using Stepper Lithography

The linear front-end is the analog processor chosen for the final integration into the pixel readout chip for the high-luminosity upgrade of the CMS experiment at the large hadron collider. The front-end has been included in the RD53A chip, designed by the CERN RD53 collaboration and submitted in 2017. An optimized version of the front-end has been designed, submitted, and tested in the framework of the RD53B developments. The optimization is mainly concerned with the time-walk performance of the front-end and with its threshold tuning capabilities. The article describes in detail such design improvements together with the results from the characterization of a small prototype chip including a 16 $\times $ 16 pixel matrix featuring both the RD53A and RD53B versions of the front-end. Test results show a significant reduction, about 10 ns for input signals close to the threshold, of the time-walk in the RD53B front-end, featuring a threshold dispersion smaller than 65 electrons r.m.s. after exposure to a total ionizing dose of 1 Grad of X-rays.

Optimization of the 65-nm CMOS Linear Front-End Circuit for the CMS Pixel Readout at the HL-LHC

Silicon radiation detectors, a special type of microelectronic sensor which plays a crucial role in many applications, are reviewed in this paper, focusing on fabrication aspects. After addressing the basic concepts and the main requirements, the evolution of detector technologies is discussed, which has been mainly driven by the ever-increasing demands for frontier scientific experiments.

/pdf/silicon-radiation-detector-technologies-from-planar-to-3d-1xig9bae.pdf

Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D

In the past few years, there has been an increasing interest toward 3D silicon radiation detectors. Owing to their unique architecture, 3D detectors provide a remarkable radiation hardness at relatively low bias voltage (hence low power dissipation), that makes them the most appealing solution for use in the innermost layers of tracking detectors in High Energy Physics (HEP) experiments. Besides this primary application, the use of 3D sensor technology has been extended also to other fields, like thermal neutron detection and microdosimetry for proton and ion therapy. In this paper, we will review the state of the art and on going efforts in 3D detectors, covering the main design and technological issues, as well as selected results from the experimental characterization and TCAD simulation.

Progress in 3D Silicon Radiation Detectors

Simulating high-resolution detector responses is a computationally intensive process that has long been challenging in Particle Physics. Despite the ability of generative models to streamline it, full ultra-high-granularity detector simulation still proves to be difficult as it contains correlated and fine-grained information. To overcome these limitations, we propose Intra-Event Aware Generative Adversarial Network (IEA-GAN). IEA-GAN presents a Transformer-based Relational Reasoning Module that approximates an event in detector simulation, generating contextualized high-resolution full detector responses with a proper relational inductive bias. IEA-GAN also introduces a Self-Supervised intra-event aware loss and Uniformity loss, significantly enhancing sample fidelity and diversity. We demonstrate IEA-GAN's application in generating sensor-dependent images for the ultra-high-granularity Pixel Vertex Detector (PXD), with more than 7.5 M information channels at the Belle II Experiment. Applications of this work span from Foundation Models for high-granularity detector simulation, such as at the HL-LHC (High Luminosity LHC), to simulation-based inference and fine-grained density estimation. 

pdf/ultra-high-granularity-detector-simulation-with-intra-event-3n5yz7bht0.pdf

Ultra-high-granularity detector simulation with intra-event aware generative adversarial network and self-supervised relational reasoning

The ATLAS experiment will undergo a full replacement of its inner detector to face the challenges posed by the High Luminosity upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC). The new Inner Tracker (ITk) will have to deal with extreme particle fluences. Due to its superior radiation hardness the 3D silicon sensor technology has been chosen to instrument the innermost pixel layer of ITk, which is the most exposed to radiation damage. Three foundries (CNM, FBK and SINTEF), have developed and fabricated novel 3D pixel sensors to meet the specifications of the new ITk pixel detector. These are produced in a single-side technology on either SOI or Si-on-Si bonded wafers by etching both n- and p-type columns from the same side. With respect to previous generations of 3D sensors they feature thinner active substrates and smaller pixel cells of 50 µm by 50 µm and 25 µm by 100 µm This paper reviews the main design and technological issues of these novel 3D sensors, and presents their characterization before and after exposure to large radiation doses close to the one expected for the innermost layer of ITk. The performance of pixel modules, where the sensors are interconnected to the recently developed RD53A chip prototype for HL-LHC, has been investigated in the laboratory and at beam tests. The results of these measurements demonstrate the excellent radiation hardness of this new generation of 3D pixel sensors that enabled the project to proceed with their pre-production for the ITk tracker.

/pdf/novel-3d-pixel-sensors-for-the-upgrade-of-the-atlas-inner-2xez5mh7g3.pdf

Novel 3D pixel sensors for the upgrade of the ATLAS Inner Tracker

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Novel 3D pixel sensors for the upgrade of the ATLAS Inner Tracker