Insects are the largest biological group on the earth, characterized by high biodiversity, easy rearing, and large populations. The utilization of insects in China has a long history and some insect species have contributed to the formation of characteristic industries. Insect products, such as silk and honey, are already familiar to the public; however, many beneficial insects and their products are not well known to most people, for example, lac insect and lac, gall aphid and Chinese gallnut, and insect wax. A new industry featuring the utilization and industrialization of insects has been rising in China. Chemically, insect products are used as raw materials; agriculturally, insects are utilized to pollinate crops for better yield; natural enemy insects have been reared to control pests; insect protein may be used for human food or animal feed; medicinally, chemical compounds may be extracted from insects as active ingredients for pharmaceutical usage; and ornamental butterfly has been applied in travel sightseeing. Insects' new purpose and function will be exploited as they gain recognition for their resources. This paper reviews insect industrialization in China and discusses the prospect of insect commerce in the future.

Insect industrialization and prospect in commerce: A case of China

Existing swarm intelligence (SI) optimization algorithms applied to node localization optimization (NLO) and node coverage optimization (NCO) problems have low accuracy. In this study, a novel balanced butterfly optimizer (BBO) is proposed which comprehensively considers that butterflies in nature have both smell-sensitive and light-sensitive characteristics. These smell-sensitive and light-sensitive characteristics are used for the global and local search strategies of the proposed algorithm, respectively. Notably, the value of individuals' smell-sensitive characteristic is generally positive, which is a point that cannot be ignored. The performance of the proposed BBO is verified by twenty-three benchmark functions and compared to other state-of-the-art (SOTA) SI algorithms, including particle swarm optimization (PSO), differential evolution (DE), grey wolf optimizer (GWO), artificial butterfly optimization (ABO), butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA), Harris hawk optimization (HHO), and aquila optimizer (AO). The results demonstrate that the proposed BBO has better performance with the global search ability and strong stability. In addition, the BBO algorithm is used to address NLO and NCO problems in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) used in environmental monitoring, obtaining good results. 

Joint Light-Sensitive Balanced Butterfly Optimizer for Solving the NLO and NCO Problems of WSN for Environmental Monitoring

Simple Summary In this work, we analysed the visual and olfactory sensory responses of the butterfly Papilio demoleus during foraging and courtship. We found that P. demoleus has a preference for red and orange. There is a significant difference between the visual and olfactory behaviour of both males and females; males rely more on visual cues, and females respond more to olfactory signals during foraging and courtship. Colour is the dominant factor during foraging and courtship; members of P. demoleus find the target by colour. Butterfly movement is an important role during the courtship of P.demoleus, and odour can increase accurate recognition of males and females. Opsin genes of P. demoleus were analysed, and we found that P. demoleus have genes that recognise the long wavelength, blue and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. These pieces of evidence are beneficial to understand the coevolve of the butterfly and plant. Abstract Colours and odours are the most important cues for butterflies to localise food and mating partners. We studied the visual and olfactory responses of the widely distributed butterfly Papilio demoleus Linnaeus during foraging and courtship. P. demoleus visited odourless flowers with six colours except green and black, with red as the favourite colour (650–780 nm). Males and females differed in behaviour while visiting flowers. Males were more active than females during foraging. The application of honey water resulted in a significant increase in flower visits by both females and males, and they scarcely visited the apetalous branches with odours. Under natural conditions, four patterns were observed: males chasing males (42.28%), males chasing females (30.56%), females chasing females (13.73%), and females chasing males (13.43%). Males chasing males was the most frequent, probably because males drive away competing con-specific males. When butterflies visited odourless mimics, males chasing females (70.73%) and males chasing males (29.27%) also occurred, indicating that males could accurately distinguish mates using colours only without any chemical cues, and females need chemical cues. The behavioural responses of P. demoleus to floral visits and courtship suggest that colour is the dominant factor during foraging and courtship. We verified the presence of P. demoleus rhodopsin genes, including Rh2, Rh3, Rh4, and Rh5, for long wavelength, blue, and ultraviolet (UV) spectrum recognition, which is consistent with the colour recognition of flowers and wings during visiting flowers and courtship.

/pdf/colour-selection-and-olfactory-responses-of-papilio-demoleus-rvbd61tq.pdf

Colour Selection and Olfactory Responses of Papilio demoleus during Foraging and Courtship

Color and odor are crucial cues for butterflies during foraging and courtship. While most sexual dimorphic butterflies rely more on vision, our understanding of how butterflies with similar coloration use different signals remains limited. This study investigated the visual and olfactory behavioral responses of the similarly colored butterfly 

VOC Characterization of Byasa hedistus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) and Its Visual and Olfactory Responses during Foraging and Courtship

To investigate the pollination characteristics of Primula sieboldii E. Morren,we observed the flowering phenology,flower morphology,the kinds of insects visited Primula sieboldii,the behavior of insects visited Primula sieboldii,the frequency of insects visited Primula sieboldii,and examined the pollen viability,the stigma acceptability,P/O(pollen /ovule rate)and the breeding system of Primula sieboldii,which was introduced to the forest botanical garden of the Heilongjiang Province. The results showed:Primula sieboldii is typically distylous and had two floral morphs within a population:long-styled (Pin)and short-styled(Thrum)morph;The flowering of P. sieboldii take place in May;The pollen viability and the stigma acceptability were both stronger within three days after blossoming;According to Dafni (1992),if the outcrossing indexes were three or four,the breeding system of Primula sieboldii was outcrossing,partially self-compatible,and demanded for pollinators. But by Cruden(1977),if the pollen-ovule ratio(P/O)of Primula sieboldii was from 244 to 361,the breeding system of Primula sieboldii was facultative xenogamy. The pollinators for this species include Papilio maackii M.,Pieris melete M.,Loxostege sticticalis L.,Haemorrhagia sp.,Papilio machaon L. of the Lepidoptera and Eristalis arbustorum L. of the Diptera. In the sunny days,the peak visiting frequencies of vistors is from 10:00 to 15:00 and when it was rainy or the temperature sharply declined,the frequency of visitors was lower obviously.

The Pollination Biology of Primula sieboldii

Colors and chemicals are the most important cues for butterflies to localize mating partners and food. In this study, we used artificial flowers with different colors and plastic butterfly wing mimics to separate the impact of colors from other cues on foraging and courtship of the butterfly Papilio maackii. We found that males relied more on visual cues during foraging and courtship, but females responded more to olfactory signals. Males visited artificial flowers more frequently than females. However, when honey was applied on artificial flowers, the frequency of female's flower visits increased and was much higher than that of male's, suggesting that females may have stronger olfactory than visual senses. During courtship, females were passive, whereas males were very active in chasing females and driving away other males. Similar to courtship among butterflies in a natural population, males showed recognition ability to butterfly wing mimics, indicating that males could accurately identify mates using colors only without any chemical cues. We also analyzed volatiles and identified five types of male‐specific chemicals while no female‐specific chemicals were identified, suggesting that females might have used these male‐specific volatiles to recognize and accepted males during courtship. Pollination of the plant Primula sieboldii mainly depends on P. maackii, and the plant has flowers with purple and mauve colors. Coincidently, P. maackii showed color preference to blue and purple, suggesting that the butterfly and plants might have coevolved during the long course of interactions.

Visual and olfactory sensory responses of the butterfly Papilio maackii during foraging and courtship

Abstract Honeybees play a significant role in the plant–pollinator interactions of many flowering plants. The ecological and evolutionary consequences of plant–pollinator interactions vary by geographic region, and the effects of honeybees on the reproduction of toxic plants have not been well studied. We measured the florescence of toxic plants, the flower-visiting behaviour of honeybees and the effects of pollination on the fertility, weight and moisture content of seeds. The effects of climatic factors on the number of flowers, and the spatial and temporal variation in pollinator visits were evaluated, and the effects of pollinator visits on seed quality were evaluated. Flower visitors were diverse, climatic factors had a great impact on spatio-temporal flowering variation and the number of bee visits was strongly correlated with the spatio-temporal variation in the number of flowers. Honeybees strongly increase the fullness and weight of seeds. Our study demonstrated a good ecological fit between the spatio-temporal variation in the flowering of toxic plants and the general validity of honeybee pollination syndrome in the south of Hengduan Mountains in East Asia. A linear relationship between honeybee visitation and plant reproduction can benefit the stabilization of plant reproduction.

/pdf/effects-of-honeybee-apis-cerana-visiting-behaviour-on-toxic-2gg2lzdz.pdf

Effects of honeybee (Apis cerana) visiting behaviour on toxic plant (Tripterygium hypoglaucum) reproduction

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Visual and olfactory sensory responses of the butterfly Papilio maackii during foraging and courtship

Colour Selection and Olfactory Responses of Papilio demoleus during Foraging and Courtship

Effects of honeybee (Apis cerana) visiting behaviour on toxic plant (Tripterygium hypoglaucum) reproduction