Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes in humans, including perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. Emotion has a particularly strong influence on attention, especially modulating the selectivity of attention as well as motivating action and behavior. This attentional and executive control is intimately linked to learning processes, as intrinsically limited attentional capacities are better focused on relevant information. Emotion also facilitates encoding and helps retrieval of information efficiently. However, the effects of emotion on learning and memory are not always univalent, as studies have reported that emotion either enhances or impairs learning and long-term memory (LTM) retention, depending on a range of factors. Recent neuroimaging findings have indicated that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex cooperate with the medial temporal lobe in an integrated manner that affords (i) the amygdala modulating memory consolidation; (ii) the prefrontal cortex mediating memory encoding and formation; and (iii) the hippocampus for successful learning and LTM retention. We also review the nested hierarchies of circular emotional control and cognitive regulation (bottom-up and top-down influences) within the brain to achieve optimal integration of emotional and cognitive processing. This review highlights a basic evolutionary approach to emotion to understand the effects of emotion on learning and memory and the functional roles played by various brain regions and their mutual interactions in relation to emotional processing. We also summarize the current state of knowledge on the impact of emotion on memory and map implications for educational settings. In addition to elucidating the memory-enhancing effects of emotion, neuroimaging findings extend our understanding of emotional influences on learning and memory processes; this knowledge may be useful for the design of effective educational curricula to provide a conducive learning environment for both traditional "live" learning in classrooms and "virtual" learning through online-based educational technologies.

/pdf/the-influences-of-emotion-on-learning-and-memory-4ige7o8mde.pdf

The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory.

What hemodynamic (fNIRS), electrophysiological (EEG) and autonomic integrated measures can tell us about emotional processing

Despite having relatively poor spatial and temporal resolution, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has several methodological advantages compared with other non-invasive measurements of neural activation. For instance, the unique characteristics of NIRS give it potential as a tool for investigating the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in emotion processing. However, there are several obstacles in the application of NIRS to emotion research. In this mini-review, we discuss the findings of studies that used NIRS to assess the effects of PFC activation on emotion. Specifically, we address the methodological challenges of NIRS measurement with respect to the field of emotion research, and consider potential strategies for mitigating these problems. In addition, we show that two fields of research, investigating (i) biological predisposition influencing PFC responses to emotional stimuli and (ii) neural mechanisms underlying the bi-directional interaction between emotion and action, have much to gain from the use of NIRS. With the present article, we aim to lay the foundation for the application of NIRS to the above-mentioned fields of emotion research.

/pdf/nirs-as-a-tool-for-assaying-emotional-function-in-the-8yszfs2h4e.pdf

NIRS as a tool for assaying emotional function in the prefrontal cortex.

The behavioral differentiation of positive emotions has recently been studied in terms of their discrete adaptive functions or appraising profiles. Some preliminary neurophysiological evidences have been found with electroencephalography or autonomic nervous system measurements such as heart rate, skin conductance, etc. However, the brain's hemodynamic responses to different positive emotions remain largely unknown. In the present study, the functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) technique was employed. With this tool, we for the first time reported recognizable discrete positive emotions using fNIRS signals. Thirteen participants watched 30 emotional video clips to elicit 10 typical kinds of positive emotions (joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe, and love), and their frontal neural activities were simultaneously recorded with a 24-channel fNIRS system. The multidimensional scaling analysis of participants' subjective ratings on these 10 positive emotions revealed three distinct clusters, which could be interpreted as "playfulness" for amusement, joy, interest, "encouragement" for awe, gratitude, hope, inspiration, pride, and "harmony" for love, serenity. Hemodynamic responses to these three positive emotion clusters showed distinct patterns, and HbO-based individual-level binary classifications between them achieved an averaged accuracy of 73.79 ± 11.49% (77.56 ± 7.39% for encouragement vs. harmony, 73.29 ± 11.87% for playfulness vs. harmony, 70.51 ± 13.96% for encouragement vs. harmony). Benefited from fNIRS's high portability, low running cost and the relative robustness against motion and electrical artifacts, our findings provided support for implementing a more fine-grained emotion recognition system with subdivided positive emotion categories.

/pdf/fnirs-evidence-for-recognizably-different-positive-emotions-3ib23ojw06.pdf

fNIRS Evidence for Recognizably Different Positive Emotions.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy for the assessment of speech related tasks.

BACKGROUNDS AND PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to develop a near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-based system that recognizes pleasant and unpleasant human emotions based on cerebral blood flow (CBF) in order to understand the minds of patients whose brain function is severely impaired. The forehead region is easily accessible to NIRS measurements, whereas the role of the anterior prefrontal cortex (PFC) in the processing of emotion remains to be elucidated.



METHODS

Initially, using event-related NIRS we examined changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) as an indicator of regional CBF changes, which reflect brain activity directly related to emotions, but not to cognitive operations in the anterior frontal regions, during viewing affective pictures. The event-related potentials (ERPs), systemic blood pressure, and pulse rate were also measured simultaneously.



RESULTS

The event-related analysis of changes in oxy-Hb for a 6 s-picture presentation period showed that very unpleasant emotion was accompanied by an increase in oxy-Hb in the bilateral ventrolateral PFCs, while very pleasant emotion was accompanied by a decrease in oxy-Hb in the left dorsolateral PFC. There were no significant differences in either ERPs or autonomic nervous system activities between the two emotional states.



CONCLUSION

These findings suggest the possibility of recognizing patients’ emotions from CBF changes.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1552-6569.2009.00454.x

Recognition of human emotions from cerebral blood flow changes in the frontal region: a study with event-related near-infrared spectroscopy.

There is provided an output apparatus capable of outputting an image of high quality even if unreproducible colors are converted into reproducible colors among colors included in an image. The output apparatus, which converts unreproducible colors into reproducible colors among colors included in an image to output the image, includes a color unreproducible region extracting unit operable to extract a color unreproducible region that is a region including a color capable of not being reproduced by the output apparatus among the colors included in the image, a first color converting unit operable to convert a color of the color unreproducible region into a color capable of being reproduced by the output apparatus, and a second color converting unit operable to convert colors of regions besides the color unreproducible region based on positional relationship in the image between the color unreproducible region and the regions besides the color unreproducible region.

Output apparatus, color conversion method, and machine readable medium storing program

116. Anterior prefrontal activity associated with pleasant and unpleasant emotions: A study with event-related near-infrared spectroscopy

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Recognition of human emotions from cerebral blood flow changes in the frontal region: a study with event-related near-infrared spectroscopy.

Output apparatus, color conversion method, and machine readable medium storing program

116. Anterior prefrontal activity associated with pleasant and unpleasant emotions: A study with event-related near-infrared spectroscopy