Publisher Summary This chapter describes sterile insect techniques (SIT). It is a biologically based method for the control of key insect pests. Wild female insects inseminated by released, radiation-sterilized males do not reproduce, and repeated releases of the sterilized insects lead to a reduction in pest population numbers. Effective control using sterile insects is achieved when they are used systematically as part of area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) programs. SIT is species-specific, nonpolluting, and resistance-free. Since the original concept was developed in the United States in the 1940s, SIT has been used successfully for screwworm flies, tsetse flies, fruit flies, and moths. Technical progress in behavioral ecology, mass rearing, strain improvement, global information, positioning and monitoring systems, and aerial release, combined with economies of scale and a growing demand for pest-free and low-pesticide agricultural products in local and international trade, have increased the use of SIT in AW-IPM programs. These programs, by decreasing insecticide use, have also facilitated the use of biological control agents against secondary insect pests.

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Sterile Insect Technique

One of the main obstacles for a wider use of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) against the Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) is the damage commercial fruit suffers due to sterile female stings. To overcome this obstacle, the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture has played a leading role in sponsoring and carrying out research to develop medfly genetic sexing strains that allow male-only SIT releases.

Recently, as a result of this continued FAO/IAEA effort, genetic sexing strains based on a temperature sensitive lethal (tsl) mutation have been developed at the IAEA Laboratories at Seibersdorf. Unlike previous pupal color sexing strains, these ‘second generation’ sexing strains allow female killing at an early (embryonal) stage. In addition, they are essentially stable under mass rearing conditions. This represents an important breakthrough because both of these attributes were considered indispensable for genetic sexing strains with any potential to replace conventional strains with both sexes in large scale sterile medfly production facilities. Besides the considerable savings in the costs of release and field monitoring, genetic sexing strains in field tests have shown severalfold increases in the effectiveness of the SIT as compared with the standard strains involving males and females. When releasing both males and females, sterile males are apparently not used effectively, because they use their limited sperm mostly to mate with sterile females and because they do not disperse widely in the presence of these females. When males only are released, however, they disperse much further in search of wild females and compete more intensely with wild males for wild females.

As a result of the availability of usable male-only strains, and the demonstration of their increased effectiveness, the applicability of the SIT against medfly has increased in two different ways. Highly developed commercial fruit growing regions, that previously had excluded application of SIT because of the fruit damage due to sterile female stings, are now reconsidering such free area/exclusion programs. More-importantly, sterile male releases can now also be used for routine control purposes, rather than only for eradication programs, partially or fully replacing chemical bait-sprays during the fruiting seasons.

Increased effectiveness and applicability of the sterile insect technique through male‐only releases for control of Mediterranean fruit flies during fruiting seasons

Demographic parameters for the Mediterranean fruit fly reared on each of twenty four different hosts from sixteen different plant families are reported. These include cohort parameters of development, survival, pupal sizc, and fecundity as well as population parameters such as intrinsic rate of population increase (r) and mean generation time. Major findings include the following: i) no consistent quantitative relationships existed between r and its chief demographic determinants such as preadult developmental time and adult fecundity; and ii) few correlations existed among the cohort life history parameters themselves. The principle conclusion is that the medfly is a successful generalist frugivore because of its developmental ability to offset the effect of the value for a host-specific trait that tends to lower r with one that tends to increase r, the net result of which is to maintain a relatively high r.

Effect of larval host on life history traits of the mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata.

The visual ecology of flies is outstanding among insects due to a combination of specific attributes. Flies’ compound eyes possess an open rhabdom and thus separate rhabdomeres in each ommatidium assigned to two visual pathways. The highly sensitive, monovariant neural superposition system is based on the excitation of the peripheral rhabdomeres of the retinula cells R1–6 and controls optomotor reactions. The two forms of central rhabdomeres of R7/8 retinula cells in each ommatidium build up a system with four photoreceptors sensitive in different wavelength ranges and thought to account for colour vision. Evidence from wavelength discrimination tests suggests that all colour stimuli are assigned to one of just four colour categories, but cooperation of the two pathways is also evident. Flies use colour cues for various behavioural reactions such as flower visitation, proboscis extension, host finding, and egg deposition. Direct evidence for colour vision, the ability to discriminate colours according to spectral shape but independent of intensity, has been demonstrated for few fly species only. Indirect evidence for colour vision provided from electrophysiological recordings of the spectral sensitivity of photoreceptors and opsin genes indicates similar requisites in various flies; the flies’ responses to coloured targets, however, are much more diverse.

Visual ecology of flies with particular reference to colour vision and colour preferences

Wooden and rubber fruit models of different shapes, colors, and sizes were hung in fruiting coffee trees. Spheres (7.5 cm in diam) were much more attractive to Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) than cubes, cylinders, or rectangles of equivalent surface area. Black and yellow were the most attractive of eight colors, and white and grey were the least attractive. When an array of sphere sizes were tested, the attraction to flies increased as the size of yellow spheres increased from 1.5 to 18 cm diam. Trimedlure (tert-butyl 4(5)-chloro-2-methylcyclohexanecarboxylate) enhanced the attraction for males when added to 20.3 times 25.4-cm yellow rectangles and to 7.5-cm black spheres.



ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

VISUELLE ORIENTIERUNG ADULTER CERATITIS CAPITATA AUF FRUCHTATTRAPPEN



Fruchtattrappen aus Holz und Kautschuk verschiedener Farbe und Grosse haben sich nach Prokopy (1968) als attraktiv auf R. pomonella (Walsh) in Apfelbaumen erwiesen. Aehnliche Resultate ergaben sich, als diese mit Stikem® uberzogenen Korper in Kaffeebaumen auf Kana, Hawaii aufgehangt wurden und C. capitata beider Geschlechter anzogen. Es wurde gezeigt, dass eine Kugel (7,5 cm Durchmesser) viel attraktiver ist als ein Zylinder, ein Rechteck oder ein Kubus gleicher Flache (Tafel I, Exper. 2). Gelbe Kugeln, die wahrscheinlich die Reflexion des Laubwerks nachahmen, wurden mit zunehmender Grosse fur beide Geschlechter attraktiver. Schwarze Kugeln, die wahrscheinlich die spektrale Absorption von Fruchten nachahmen, zeigten eine optimale Attraktion zwischen 3,2 und 7,5 cm Durchmesser. Gelbe und schwarze Kugeln von 7,5 cm Durchmesser waren gleich anziehend und waren am attraktivsten von acht berucksichtigten Farben, wahrend weiss und grau am wenigsten attraktiv waren.



In einer zusatzlichen Studie wurde Trimedlure, ein Mannchenlockstoff, auf einen Wattebausch gebracht und an eine schwarze 7,5 cm Kugel und an ein gelbes 20 × 25 cm Rechteck gehangt. Damit wurde die Attraktion beider Korper fur Mannchen, nicht aber fur Weibchen erhoht. Die Verwendung eines Mannchen- oder Weibchenlockstoffs zusammen mit visuellen Fallen kann zur Entwicklung einer wirksameren Falle fuhren.

Visual orientation of ceratitis capitata flies to fruit models

Chapter 38 – Tephritid Fruit Flies

Female Mediterranean fruit flies, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), were subjected to sterilizing doses of 15 krad CO60 in a nitrogen atmosphere at the late puparial and newly emerged adult stages. Ovarian dissection and cross-mating experiments were conducted to determine whether egg development is enhanced during maturation of the puparial content and whether hypoxic atmospheres during irradiation might contribute to egg viability. When irradiated 2 days before eclosion, germinal ovarian tissue was severely damaged and no eggs occurred. However, a logarithmic increase in eggs was discovered in adult females from pupae irradiated 1 day before emergence, 3 h before emergence, and 3-h-old adults. Although no regeneration of germinal tissue was found, retention of eggs in the ovaries for varying lengths of time simulated ârecovery of fertility.â Replicated cross matings with irradiated males of the same age distribution produced no offspring. However, matings of normal males A females from pupae irradiated a few hours before emergence and newly emerged, produced viable offspring. The surviving F1, generation mated and produced a normal complement of eggs. This report describes discovery of a mechanism for remnant fertility which, if present in a pest species of such high reproductive potential, could adversely affect the success of sterile insect technique application.

Gamma Irradiation of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae): Effects of Puparial Age under Induced Hypoxia on Female Sterility

Malaysian fruit fly, Dacus latifrons (Hendel), has been reared on artificial diet for the first time. A carrot and a wheat larval diet were used. Larval recovery for both diets was >50%. Fastest development, highest fecundity, and highest fertility were obtained with the wheat diet. Although reproductive parameters for the wheat diet were less than those for a preferred natural larval host, pepper, Capsicum annuum L. variety jalapeno, scarcity of quality peppers in markets favors use of a wheat artificial diet for mass production of D. latifrons . Results are discussed in relation to mass production of insects for attractants/screening and sterile insect release method (SIRM) programs.

http://jee.oxfordjournals.org/content/jee/80/6/1337.full.pdf

Two artificial larval diets for rearing Dacus latifrons (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Simple low cost techniques and equipment have been developed for large scale produc tion of Malaysian fruit fly. Dacus latifrons (Hendel). An artificial wheat diet was modified for use as a production diet by addition of carrot powder (7.5% by vol), which significantly in creased pupal yield and adult fecundity, and citric acid (0.35%), which controlled fungi en countered during large scale rearing. A new oviposition device, enclosable larval rearing trays, a larval collection cabinet, and specialized pupal holding procedures are described. During a 1 yr period 7,611,040 D. latifrons pupae were produced from 25,714,344 fertile eggs in less than 77 in* of space in 120 personnel hr per wk to support commodity treatment, attractant screening, and sterile insect release method research programs.

Rearing Techniques for Dacus latifrons (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

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