Arcobacter genus currently comprises 18 recognized species, among which Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter cryaerophilus and Arcobacter skirrowii have been associated with human and animal disease. Although these organisms, with special emphasis A. butzleri, are emerging as clinical pathogens, several aspects of their epidemiology and virulence are only starting to be clarified. In vitro human and animal cell culture assays have been used to show that several Arcobacter species can adhere to and invade eukaryotic cells, induce an immune response and produce toxins that damage host cells. In addition, data from genome sequencing highlighted several potential markers that may be helpful candidates for the study and understanding of these mechanisms; however, more work is necessary to clarify the molecular mechanisms involved in Arcobacter virulence. Arcobacter can be considered a relatively robust organism showing to be able to survive in adverse conditions, as the ones imposed by food processing and storage. Moreover, these bacteria have shown increased antibiotic resistance, along with high multidrug resistance. In this review, we seek to update the state-of-the-art concerning Arcobacter distribution, its interaction with the host, the trends of antibiotic resistance, its ability to survive, and finally the use of natural antimicrobials for control of Arcobacter.

Insights in the pathogenesis and resistance of Arcobacter: A review

The microbiome and antibiotic resistance in integrated fishfarm water: Implications of environmental public health.

Arcobacter species are highly abundant in sewage where they often comprise approximately 5-11% of the bacterial community. Oligotyping of sequences amplified from the V4V5 region of the 16S rRNA gene revealed Arcobacter populations from different cities were similar and dominated by one to three members, with extremely high microdiversity in the minor members. Overall, nine subgroups within the Arcobacter genus accounted for >80% of the total Arcobacter sequences in all samples analyzed. The distribution of oligotypes varied by both sample site and temperature, with samples from the same site generally being more similar to each other than other sites. Seven oligotypes matched with 100% identity to characterized Arcobacter species, but the remaining 19 abundant oligotypes appear to be unknown species. Sequences representing the two most abundant oligotypes matched exactly to the type strains for A. cryaerophilus group 1B (CCUG 17802) and group 1A (CCUG17801), respectively. Oligotype 1 showed generally lower relative abundance in colder samples and higher relative abundance in warmer samples; the converse was true for Oligotype 2. Ten other oligotypes had significant positive or negative correlations between temperature and proportion in samples as well. The oligotype that corresponded to A. butzleri, the Arcobacter species most commonly isolated by culturing in sewage studies, was only the eleventh most abundant oligotype. This work suggests that Arcobacter populations occupy unique niches in sewer infrastructure and are modulated by temperature. Furthermore, current culturing methods used for identification of Arcobacter fail to identify some abundant members of the community and may underestimate the presence of species with affinities for growth at lower temperatures. Understanding the ecological factors that affect the survival and growth of Arcobacter spp. in sewer infrastructure may better inform the risks associated with these emerging pathogens.

/pdf/population-dynamics-and-ecology-of-arcobacter-in-sewage-5ehjxthaap.pdf

Population dynamics and ecology of Arcobacter in sewage

Diversity and abundance of bacterial pathogens in urban rivers impacted by domestic sewage.

Impact of sewer overflow on public health: A comprehensive scientometric analysis and systematic review.

The genus Arcobacter has been associated with human illness and fecal contamination by humans and animals. To better characterize the health risk posed by this emerging waterborne pathogen, we investigated the occurrence of Arcobacter spp. in Lake Erie beach waters. During the summer of 2010, water samples were collected 35 times from the Euclid, Villa Angela, and Headlands (East and West) beaches, located along Ohio's Lake Erie coast. After sample concentration, Arcobacter was quantified by real-time PCR targeting the Arcobacter 23S rRNA gene. Other fecal genetic markers (Bacteroides 16S rRNA gene [HuBac], Escherichia coli uidA gene, Enterococcus 23S rRNA gene, and tetracycline resistance genes) were also assessed. Arcobacter was detected frequently at all beaches, and both the occurrence and densities of Arcobacter spp. were higher at the Euclid and Villa Angela beaches (with higher levels of fecal contamination) than at the East and West Headlands beaches. The Arcobacter density in Lake Erie beach water was significantly correlated with the human-specific fecal marker HuBac according to Spearman's correlation analysis (r = 0.592; P < 0.001). Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that most of the identified Arcobacter sequences were closely related to Arcobacter cryaerophilus, which is known to cause gastrointestinal diseases in humans. Since human-pathogenic Arcobacter spp. are linked to human-associated fecal sources, it is important to identify and manage the human-associated contamination sources for the prevention of Arcobacter-associated public health risks at Lake Erie beaches.

https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/78/16/5511.full.pdf

Arcobacter in Lake Erie beach waters: an emerging gastrointestinal pathogen linked with human-associated fecal contamination

Effectiveness of onsite wastewater reuse system in reducing bacterial contaminants measured with human-specific IMS/ATP and qPCR.

Current approaches for assessing and communicating risk associated with recreational water contact are inadequate for protecting public health. New approaches for rapidly and practically assessing water quality are needed. Accordingly, this project was designed around the evaluation of real-time molecular methods and practical measures for rapidly assessing infectious disease risk at two of Ohio’s Lake Erie beaches. In this study, we present a baseline understanding of the human health risk attributed to infectious enteric viruses and Arcobacter as human pathogens that may be impacting public health through exposure to Lake Erie beach waters. Using rapid molecular methods and traditional water quality monitoring instruments, our objectives were: 1) to investigate the significance of these microorganisms as important emerging pathogens in Lake Erie beach water; 2) to determine whether the current fecal indicator (cultured E. coli) and the most likely new method that US EPA will adopt in 2012 (enterococci qPCR) can predict the presence of human pathogens; and 3) to develop statistical models using sanitary survey data (previously collected) and environmental determinants in explaining pathogen levels. Through accomplishing our objectives, we intended to provide a more complete understanding of fecal contamination and human health risks at these Lake Erie beaches.

Does Enterococci qPCR Predict Pathogen levels

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Arcobacter in Lake Erie beach waters: an emerging gastrointestinal pathogen linked with human-associated fecal contamination

Effectiveness of onsite wastewater reuse system in reducing bacterial contaminants measured with human-specific IMS/ATP and qPCR.

Does Enterococci qPCR Predict Pathogen levels