Photodamage to the mitochondria of murine leukemia P388 cells resulted in immediate loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential together with the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol. This was followed by a rapid activation of caspase 3-like proteases, as indicated by a marked rise in DEVDase activity. There was no significant effect on WEHDase or VEIDase activities, suggesting that only the late-stage caspases had been effected. The apoptotic response to mitochondrial photodamage was abolished by the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk, but this did not prevent loss of viability after mitochondrial photodamage. These studies indicate that the release of cytochrome c from photodamaged mitochondria is sufficient to directly initiate a caspase-dependent apoptotic response.

/pdf/photodynamic-therapy-a-mitochondrial-inducer-of-apoptosis-5bjzqkjx76.pdf

Photodynamic therapy: a mitochondrial inducer of apoptosis.

The mode of cell death induced by photodynamic treatment (PDT) was studied in two cell lines cultured in monolayer, V79 Chinese hamster fibroblasts and WiDr human colon adenocarcinoma cells. The cells were incubated with 5-aminolaevulinic acid (5-ALA) as a precursor for the endogenously synthesised protoporphyrin IX, which was activated by light. Free DNA ends, owing to internucleosomal DNA cleavage in apoptotic cells, were stained specifically with a fluorescent dye in the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) assay. The free DNA ends were measured by flow cytometry and the fractions of apoptotic cells determined. Total cell death was measured in a cell survival assay to determine the necrotic fraction after subtraction of the apoptotic fraction. V79 cells did undergo apoptosis while WiDr cells were killed only through necrosis. With time, the apoptotic fraction of V79 cells increased until a maximum was reached about 3-4 h after ALA-PDT treatment. For increasing ALA-PDT doses, a maximal apoptotic fraction 75-85% of the cells was measured at about 85% of total cell death. The flow cytometric assay of apoptosis was confirmed by the typical ladder of oligonucleosomal DNA fragments obtained from agarose gel electrophoresis, by fluorescence micrographs visualising the induced free DNA ends and by electron micrographs showing the typical morphology of apoptotic cells.

Apoptosis and necrosis induced with light and 5-aminolaevulinic acid-derived protoporphyrin IX

Very little is known about the applicability of the metabolic and biochemical events observed in cell culture systems to in vivo tumor shrinkage following photodynamic therapy (PDT). The purpose of this study was to assess whether PDT induces apoptosis during tumor ablation in vivo. We treated radiation-induced fibrosarcoma (RIF-1) tumors grown in C3H/HeN mice with PDT employing three photosensitizers, Photofrin-II, chloroaluminum phthalocyanine tetrasulfonate, or Pc IV (a promising phthalocyanine developed in this laboratory). Each photosensitizer was injected intraperitoneally and 24 h later the tumors were irradiated with an appropriate wavelength of red light using an argon-pumped dye laser. During the course of tumor shrinkage, the tumors were removed at 1, 2, 4 and 10 h post-PDT for DNA fragmentation, histopathologic, and electron microscopic studies. Markers of apoptosis, viz. the ladder of nucleosome-size DNA fragments, increased apoptotic bodies, and condensation of chromatin material around the periphery of the nucleus, were evident in tumor tissue even 1 h post-PDT; the extent of these changes increased during the later stages of tumor ablation. No changes were observed in tumors given photosensitizer alone or irradiation alone. Our data suggest that the damage produced by in vivo PDT may activate endonucleolysis and chromatin condensation, and that apoptosis is an early event in tumor shrinkage following PDT.

Apoptosis during photodynamic therapy-induced ablation of rif-1 tumors in c3h mice: electron microscopic, histopathologic and biochemical evidence

Photosensitization using the tumor-localizing porphyrin Photofrin® induces cell death both in vitro and in vivo, but the mechanism of cell death is not well understood. Cell lysis (necrosis) and apoptosis have both been observed. The latter seems restricted mainly to lymphoma and epithelial cell lines. To check the influence of the incubation protocol on the cell death mechanism, CV-1 cells were loaded with Photofrin using two different protocols. In both protocols, photosensitized CV-1 cells underwent severe morphological changes before cell death. Many cells treated with protocol 1 (24 h with 1 μ g/mL of Photofrin in culture medium) underwent apoptosis, as demonstrated by plasma membrane blebbing and fragmentation into vesicles, condensation of the chromatin and fragmentation of the nucleus with oligonucleosomic degradation of the DNA. In contrast, cells treated with protocol 2 (1 h with 10 μg/mL of Photofrin in phosphatebuffered saline) lysed instead of fragmented, without oligonucleosomic degradation of the DNA. This type of cell death looks much like necrosis. However, early morphological changes suggest that it is, in fact, apoptosis stopped by plasma membrane leakage. It is concluded that apoptosis is primarily induced in CV-1 cells but may be arrested by membrane lysis, depending on the incubation protocol.

Apoptosis or Necrosis Following Photofrin® Photosensitization: Influence of the Incubation Protocol

Genotoxic potential of porphyrin type photosensitizers with particular emphasis on 5-aminolevulinic acid: implications for clinical photodynamic therapy.

Mechanisms of cell death have been explored in cells and tumors treated with photodynamic therapy (PDT). Photosensitizers used for these studies were Photofrin, tetrasulfonated and nonsulfonated aluminum phthalocyanine, and a new silicon phthalocyanine [SiPc(OH)OSi(CH3)2(CH2)3N(CH3)2], referred to as PcIV. In mouse lymphoma L5178Y cells, a dose of PDT sensitized by PcIV which causes a 90% loss of cell survival induces apoptosis (programmed cell death) over a several-hour time course, beginning within 10 minutes of irradiation. Apoptosis is a metabolic process initiated by PDT-induced damage to membranes and triggered by the activation of phospholipases A2 and C and the release of Ca++ from intracellular stores. An endogenous endonuclease is activated and cleaves nuclear DNA in the internucleosomal region of chromatin. Subsequent metabolic events now appear to cause the loss of cellular NAD and ATP, the former a result of the activation of a second nuclear enzyme, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, by the endonucleolytically generated DNA strand breaks. Loss of ATP follows upon the loss of NAD needed for energy metabolism. Although the induction of apoptosis is efficiently produced by direct PDT damage to L5178Y cells, we now find that apoptosis is also produced by treatment of certain other lymphoid-derived cells and cells of epithelial origin. Under the limited set of conditions tested, there was no evidence for PDT-induced apoptosis in a fibroblast cell line, in mouse fibrosarcoma RIF-1 and L929 cells, in human adenocarcinoma A549 cells, or in human squamous cell carcinoma cells in culture. The evidence suggests that apoptosis, a form of metabolic cell death, is an important mechanism of tumor ablation in PDT-treated tumors, and that the induction of apoptosis may involve the interaction of direct PDT damage to malignant cells with factors produced by PDT action on vascular and other host cells.© (1993) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Signal transduction and metabolic changes during tumor cell apoptosis following phthalocyanine-sensitized photodynamic therapy

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Signal transduction and metabolic changes during tumor cell apoptosis following phthalocyanine-sensitized photodynamic therapy