A review on recent advancements in electrochemical detection of dopamine using carbonaceous nanomaterials

An effective and affordable technique for detecting a variety of substances of biological, medical, and environmental significance is electrochemical sensing (ECS). Due to their distinctive structures and abilities to offer robust electrocatalytic activity with little surface fouling, low cost, biocompatibility, and simple electron transfer kinetics, carbon materials-based electrodes like graphene (GR) and carbon nanotube (CNT) are frequently used for the development of electrochemical sensors. Since GR has a large specific surface area, it can host a large number of biomolecules and still have a decent detection sensitivity. Along with important developments in the synthesis, purification, conjugation, and biofunctionalization of GR, device integration technologies and nanofabrication of GR have evolved. Combinations of the aforementioned characteristics have accelerated the development of GR-based sensors for many critical bio-analyses. Along with important developments in the synthesis, purification, conjugation, and biofunctionalization of GR, device integration technologies and nanofabrication of GR have evolved. The rapid development of GR-based sensors for many critical bioanalyses with better detection sensitivity and selectivity has been facilitated by the combination of the aforementioned features. Direct electron transport between the enzyme and the active electrode region is made possible by the application of GR. It is possible to easily construct and execute on-site sensors for oxidases and dehydrogenases with improved selectivity thanks to the excellent electro-catalytic activities of GR on the redox reaction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides (NADH). Since GR's oxidation of NADH, thiols, H2O2, and other interfering species occurs at low potentials, the use of GR-based electrodes effectively suppresses these species. The two benefits of GR-based sensors for use in clinical chemistry, food quality and control, wastewater treatment, and bioprocessing are their great resistance to electrode fouling and selectivity. 

pdf/recent-developments-in-electrochemical-sensors-based-on-qu3cf04mtk.pdf

Recent developments in electrochemical sensors based on graphene for bioanalytical applications

Dopamine, a pivotal excitatory neurotransmitter, plays a crucial role in metabolic, cardiovascular, renal, central nervous, and endocrine systems. Abnormal dopamine within the human body can cause various diseases. Therefore, the precise quantification of dopamine levels, both in vivo and in vitro, holds paramount significance for clinical applications and physiological investigations. Carbon dots (CDs) exhibit a plethora of remarkable properties, including a substantial specific surface area, robust electrical conductivity, commendable biocompatibility, minimal toxicity, and high photostability. Considering these unique characteristics, CDs demonstrate substantial potential for fluorescent sensors, colorimetric sensors, and electrochemical sensors for dopamine detection. This review systematically examined the challenges and prospects for the utilization of CDs-based fluorescent sensors, electrochemical biosensors, and colorimetric sensors for monitoring dopamine levels in recent years. These findings unveil promising avenues for further advancements in the field of dopamine detection. 

Carbon dots-based dopamine sensors: Recent advances and challenges

A sulfur co-doped nitrogen-graphene quantum dot (S,N-GQD) was synthesized from polyaniline using sulfuric acid as an acid catalyst and S-doping agent. Thus, through a simple hydrothermal synthesis method, we could achieve nanosized (∼4 nm) highly crystalline and aromatic S,N-GQDs. The S,N-GQDs, for the first time, exhibited simultaneous sensing toward three of the top 10 toxic metal ions: Cd(II), Pb(II), and Hg(II) with highly sharp peaks and adequate peak-to-peak separation, while the control N-GQD (no S co-doping) exhibited current response only for Cd(II) and the current response of Cd(II) on S,N-GQD was ∼7-fold higher than that of on N-GQD. The detection limit values were lowest hitherto for Cd(II), Pb(II), and Hg(II) on S,N-GQD with 1, 10, and 1 pM, respectively, for the simultaneous sensing of the metal ions. The significantly enhanced sensitivity compared to that of N-GQD for Cd(II) and the versatile simultaneous sensing capability of S,N-GQD is assigned to the co-doping with S, which enabled the sensing of Pb(II) and Hg(II) through the M(II)–S interactions and the enhanced electronic properties, respectively. The sensing characteristics were effectively stretched to actual environmental water samples such as groundwater, seawater, and wastewater, spiked with Cd(II), Pb(II), and Hg(II), and accomplished ∼100% recovery in all the tested samples with a relative standard deviation of ≤0.5%. 

Graphene Quantum Dots Doped with Sulfur and Nitrogen as Versatile Electrochemical Sensors for Heavy Metal Ions Cd(II), Pb(II), and Hg(II)

Dispersant-free supra single-walled carbon nanotubes for simultaneous and highly sensitive biomolecule sensing in ex vivo mouse tissues

A highly stable copper (Cu) nanocluster (NC), which exhibited stability for more than one year, was synthesized using nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) as reducing and capping agents and smaller glutathione molecules as additional capping agents. The synthesized NC, CuNC@N-GQDs, successfully sensed dopamine (DA), serotonin (SER), and nicotine (NIC) simultaneously with well-defined peaks and good peak-to-peak separation, whereas none of the controls including CuNCs and N-GQDs exhibited the simultaneous sensing properties. In addition, they exhibited enhanced sensitivity with current responses ∼4, ∼4, and ∼2 times those of the corresponding control for DA, SER, and NIC. The limits of detection obtained were 0.001, 1.00, and 0.01 nM for DA, SER, and NIC, respectively. The higher sensitivity and the simultaneous sensing are indicative of the synergistic effect of CuNCs and N-GQDs in the CuNC@N-GQDs. The sensing performance was successfully extended to real blood and urine samples spiked with DA, SER, and NIC.

A highly stable copper nano cluster on nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots for the simultaneous electrochemical sensing of dopamine, serotonin, and nicotine: a possible addiction scrutinizing strategy.

Pb(II) and Cd(II) are featured in the World Health Organization’s (WHO) top 10 list of chemicals of primary public health concern, and their wide use in industries and the acute and chronic effects on humans and the environment make the detection and determination of the ions in environmental and drinking water samples indispensable. This work reports a detailed study on a partially reduced graphene oxide-nano molybdenum disulfide-modified glassy carbon electrode (prGO-MoS2/GCE), which exhibited the simultaneous and selective electrochemical detection of Pb(II) and Cd(II) in drinking water with a 200- and 100-fold increase in the current response, respectively, compared to that on the unmodified GCE. prGO-MoS2 showed almost nil current response for other metal ions such as Hg(II), Ag(I), Fe(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Zn(II), Sn(II), Cu(II), and Cr(VI), evident to the good selectivity toward Pb(II) and Cd(II). The lowest limit of detection (LOD) values were ∼0.0002 and 0.1 ppt, which are very well below the ≤10 and 5 ppb specified as safe for Pb(II) and Cd(II), respectively. The exemplary sensing behavior of prGO-MoS2/GCE toward Pb(II) and Cd(II) shall be assigned to the structure of prGO-MoS2 and the bonding of MoS2 to prGO, thus promoting the electrochemistry mechanism in addition to the affinity. 

Trace-Level Detection of Pb(II) and Cd(II) Aided by MoS2 Nanoflowers and Graphene Nanosheet Combination

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A highly stable copper nano cluster on nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots for the simultaneous electrochemical sensing of dopamine, serotonin, and nicotine: a possible addiction scrutinizing strategy.

Trace-Level Detection of Pb(II) and Cd(II) Aided by MoS2 Nanoflowers and Graphene Nanosheet Combination