ABSTRACT COVID-19, a respiratory infectious disease, occurs due to Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Millions of individuals around the world have been impacted by the illness, which has gravely threatened human health. The development and active involvement of varied vaccines against the COVID-19 have played a great and relieving role in controlling the life-threatening disease. Both the conventional and advanced vaccine platforms are available now to develop vaccines against COVID-19. Therefore, the present systematic review focuses on the global landscape of the COVID-19 vaccines and their current status. Among COVID-19 vaccines, virus like particles (VLPs), subunit vaccines, DNA, RNA-based vaccines, viral vector-based vaccines, inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines are the major contenders and are currently in various phase of clinical trials. Protein subunit, RNA-based and non-replicating viral vector-based platforms have been used majorly. Nevertheless, inactivated virus vaccine has been utilized clinically around the world. The clinical trials revealed that most of the vaccines have local or systemic effects after vaccination and varied efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. However, further studies are necessary to refine the technology to minimize adverse effects and improve the safety and efficacy. Abbreviations COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2; VLPs: Virus like particles; WHO: World Health Organization; E: Envelope; M: Membrane; S: Spike; N: Nucleocapsid; PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses; FDA: Food and Drug Administration; LNP: lipid-nanoparticle; AZD1222: ChAdOx1 nCoV-19; BNT162b2: Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA vaccine; mRNA-1273: Moderna vaccine; Ad26.COV2.S: Johnson and Johnson – Janssen’s vaccine; Gam-COVID-Vac: Sputnik Vaccine; NVX-CoV2373: Novavax vaccine with Matrix-M™ adjuvant.

https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2023.2191577

Tracking the COVID-19 vaccines: The global landscape

Coronavirus disease (Covid-19) has not only shaped awareness of the impact of infectious diseases on global health. It has also provided instructive lessons for better prevention strategies against new and current infectious diseases of major importance. Tuberculosis (TB) is a major current health threat caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) which has claimed more lives than any other pathogen over the last few centuries. Hence, better intervention measures, notably novel vaccines, are urgently needed to accomplish the goal of the World Health Organization to end TB by 2030. This article describes how the research and development of TB vaccines can benefit from recent developments in the Covid-19 vaccine pipeline from research to clinical development and outlines how the field of TB research can pursue its own approaches. It begins with a brief discussion of major vaccine platforms in general terms followed by a short description of the most widely applied Covid-19 vaccines. Next, different vaccination regimes and particular hurdles for TB vaccine research and development are described. This specifically considers the complex immune mechanisms underlying protection and pathology in TB which involve innate as well as acquired immune mechanisms and strongly depend on fine tuning the response. A brief description of the TB vaccine candidates that have entered clinical trials follows. Finally, it discusses how experiences from Covid-19 vaccine research, development, and rollout can and have been applied to the TB vaccine pipeline, emphasizing similarities and dissimilarities.

Vaccine development against tuberculosis before and after Covid-19

SARS-CoV-2 is the etiological agent of the coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) and is responsible for the pandemic that started in 2020. The virus enters the host cell through the interaction of its spike glycoprotein with the angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) on the host cell’s surface. Antibodies present an important role during the infection and pathogenesis due to many reasons, including the neutralization of viruses by binding to different spike epitopes. Therefore, measuring the neutralizing antibody titers in the whole population is important for COVID-19’s epidemiology. Different methods are described in the literature, and some have been used to validate the main vaccines used worldwide. In this review, we discuss the main methods used to quantify neutralizing antibody titers, their advantages and limitations, as well as new approaches to determineACE2/spike blockage by antibodies.

/pdf/an-overview-of-the-conventional-and-novel-methods-employed-2ptgqutm.pdf

An Overview of the Conventional and Novel Methods Employed for SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibody Measurement

The kinetics of Fc-mediated functions following SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination in people living with HIV (PLWH) are not known. We compared SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific Fc functions, binding, and neutralization in PLWH and people without HIV (PWOH) during acute infection (without prior vaccination) with either the D614G or Beta variants of SARS-CoV-2, or vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19. Antiretroviral treatment (ART)–naïve PLWH had significantly lower levels of IgG binding, neutralization, and antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP) compared with PLWH on ART. The magnitude of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), complement deposition (ADCD), and cellular trogocytosis (ADCT) was differentially triggered by D614G and Beta. The kinetics of spike IgG-binding antibodies, ADCC, and ADCD were similar, irrespective of the infecting variant between PWOH and PLWH overall. However, compared with PWOH, PLWH infected with D614G had delayed neutralization and ADCP. Furthermore, Beta infection resulted in delayed ADCT, regardless of HIV status. Despite these delays, we observed improved coordination between binding and neutralizing responses and Fc functions in PLWH. In contrast to D614G infection, binding responses in PLWH following ChAdOx-1 nCoV-19 vaccination were delayed, while neutralization and ADCP had similar timing of onset, but lower magnitude, and ADCC was significantly higher than in PWOH. Overall, despite delayed and differential kinetics, PLWH on ART develop comparable responses to PWOH, supporting the prioritization of ART rollout and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in PLWH. 

Despite delayed kinetics, people living with HIV achieve equivalent antibody function after SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination

It has been 34 months since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus pandemic, which causes the COVID-19 disease. In several countries, immunization has reached a proportion near what is required to reach herd immunity. Nevertheless, infections and re-infections have been observed even in vaccinated persons. That is because protection conferred by vaccines is not entirely effective against new virus variants. It is unknown how often booster vaccines will be necessary to maintain a good level of protective immunity. Furthermore, many individuals refuse vaccination, and in developing countries, a large proportion of the population has not yet been vaccinated. Some live-attenuated vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 are being developed. Here, we analyze the indirect dispersion of a live-attenuated virus from vaccinated individuals to their contacts and the contribution that this phenomenon could have to reaching Herd Immunity.

/pdf/indirect-dispersion-of-sars-cov-2-live-attenuated-vaccine-2v58da8s.pdf

Indirect Dispersion of SARS-CoV-2 Live-Attenuated Vaccine and Its Contribution to Herd Immunity

Background COVID-19 vaccine rollout is lagging in Africa, where there has been a high rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We aimed to evaluate the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection before vaccination with the ChAdOx-nCoV19 (AZD1222) vaccine on antibody responses through to 180 days. Methods We did an unmasked post-hoc immunogenicity analysis after the first and second doses of AZD1222 in a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 1b–2a study done in seven locations in South Africa. AZD1222 recipients who were HIV-uninfected, were stratified into baseline seropositive or seronegative groups using the serum anti-nucleocapsid (anti-N) immunoglobulin G (IgG) electroluminescence immunoassay to establish SARS-CoV-2 infection before the first dose of AZD1222. Binding IgG to spike (anti-S) and receptor binding domain (anti-RBD) were measured before the first dose (day 0), second dose (day 28), day 42, and day 180. Neutralising antibody (NAb) against SARS-CoV-2 variants D614G, beta, delta, gamma, and A.VOI.V2, and omicron BA1 and BA.4 variants, were measured by pseudovirus assay (day 28, day 42, and day 180). This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04444674, and the Pan African Clinicals Trials Registry, PACTR202006922165132. Findings Of 185 individuals who were randomly assigned to AZD1222, we included 91 individuals who were baseline seropositive and 58 who were baseline seronegative, in the final analysis. In the seropositive group, there was little change of anti-S IgG (and anti-RBD IgG) or neutralising antibody (NAb) titres at day 42 compared with at day 28. Anti-S (and anti-RBD) IgG geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) were higher throughout in the seropositive compared with the seronegative group, including at day 180 (GMCs 517·8 [95% CI 411·3–651·9] vs 82·1 [55·2–122·3] BAU/mL). Also D614G NAb geometric mean titres (GMTs) were higher in the seropositive group than the seronegative group, as was the percentage with titres of at least 185 (80% putative risk reduction threshold [PRRT] against wild-type–alpha COVID-19), including at day 180 (92·0% [74·0–99·0] vs 18·2% [2·3–51·8). Similar findings were observed for beta, A.VOI.V2, and gamma. For delta, BA.1, and BA.4, NAb GMTs and the proportion with titres above the PRRT were substantially higher in the seropositive compared with seronegative group at day 28 and day 42, but no longer differed between the groups by day 180. Interpretation A single dose of AZD1222 in the general African population, where COVID-19 vaccine coverage is low and SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity is 90%, could enhance the magnitude and quality of antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2. Funding The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the South African Medical Research Council, the UK Research and Innovation, the UK National Institute for Health Research, and the South African Medical Research Council. Translation For the Zulu translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

http://www.thelancet.com/article/S1473309922005965/pdf

Durability of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine and hybrid humoral immunity against variants including omicron BA.1 and BA.4 6 months after vaccination (COV005): a post-hoc analysis of a randomised, phase 1b–2a trial

Durability of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) Vaccine and Hybrid Humoral Immunity Against Variants Including Omicron BA.1 and BA.4 Six Months after Vaccination: A Randomised, Phase 1b/2a Trial

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Durability of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine and hybrid humoral immunity against variants including omicron BA.1 and BA.4 6 months after vaccination (COV005): a post-hoc analysis of a randomised, phase 1b–2a trial

Durability of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) Vaccine and Hybrid Humoral Immunity Against Variants Including Omicron BA.1 and BA.4 Six Months after Vaccination: A Randomised, Phase 1b/2a Trial