A wide variety of media can be used in learning, including distance learning, such as print, lectures, conference sections, tutors, pictures, video, sound, and computers. Any one instance of distance learning will make choices among these media, perhaps using several.

Multimedia in Learning

Although cadavers constitute the gold standard for teaching anatomy to medical and health science students, there are substantial financial, ethical, and supervisory constraints on their use. In addition, although anatomy remains one of the fundamental areas of medical education, universities have decreased the hours allocated to teaching gross anatomy in favor of applied clinical work. The release of virtual (VR) and augmented reality (AR) devices allows learning to occur through hands-on immersive experiences. The aim of this research was to assess whether learning structural anatomy utilizing VR or AR is as effective as tablet-based (TB) applications, and whether these modes allowed enhanced student learning, engagement and performance. Participants (n = 59) were randomly allocated to one of the three learning modes: VR, AR, or TB and completed a lesson on skull anatomy, after which they completed an anatomical knowledge assessment. Student perceptions of each learning mode and any adverse effects experienced were recorded. No significant differences were found between mean assessment scores in VR, AR, or TB. During the lessons however, VR participants were more likely to exhibit adverse effects such as headaches (25% in VR P < 0.05), dizziness (40% in VR, P < 0.001), or blurred vision (35% in VR, P < 0.01). Both VR and AR are as valuable for teaching anatomy as tablet devices, but also promote intrinsic benefits such as increased learner immersion and engagement. These outcomes show great promise for the effective use of virtual and augmented reality as means to supplement lesson content in anatomical education. Anat Sci Educ 10: 549-559. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.

/pdf/the-effectiveness-of-virtual-and-augmented-reality-in-health-3r4g1nh7ts.pdf

The effectiveness of virtual and augmented reality in health sciences and medical anatomy.

Background: Blended learning, which combines face-to-face learning and e-learning, has grown rapidly to be commonly used in education. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of this learning approach has not been completely quantitatively synthesized and evaluated using knowledge outcomes in health education.
Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of blended learning compared to that of traditional learning in health education.
Methods: We performed a systematic review of blended learning in health education in MEDLINE from January 1990 to July 2019. We independently selected studies, extracted data, assessed risk of bias, and compared overall blended learning versus traditional learning, offline blended learning versus traditional learning, online blended learning versus traditional learning, digital blended learning versus traditional learning, computer-aided instruction blended learning versus traditional learning, and virtual patient blended learning versus traditional learning. All pooled analyses were based on random-effect models, and the I2 statistic was used to quantify heterogeneity across studies.
Results: A total of 56 studies (N=9943 participants) assessing several types of learning support in blended learning met our inclusion criteria; 3 studies investigated offline support, 7 studies investigated digital support, 34 studies investigated online support, 8 studies investigated computer-assisted instruction support, and 5 studies used virtual patient support for blended learning. The pooled analysis comparing all blended learning to traditional learning showed significantly better knowledge outcomes for blended learning (standardized mean difference 1.07, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.28, I2=94.3%). Similar results were observed for online (standardized mean difference 0.73, 95% CI 0.60 to 0.86, I2=94.9%), computer-assisted instruction (standardized mean difference 1.13, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.79, I2=78.0%), and virtual patient (standardized mean difference 0.62, 95% CI 0.18 to 1.06, I2=78.4%) learning support, but results for offline learning support (standardized mean difference 0.08, 95% CI –0.63 to 0.79, I2=87.9%) and digital learning support (standardized mean difference 0.04, 95% CI –0.45 to 0.52, I2=93.4%) were not significant.
Conclusions: From this review, blended learning demonstrated consistently better effects on knowledge outcomes when compared with traditional learning in health education. Further studies are needed to confirm these results and to explore the utility of different design variants of blended learning.

/pdf/blended-learning-compared-to-traditional-learning-in-medical-3i30bzr61c.pdf

Blended Learning Compared to Traditional Learning in Medical Education: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Anatomical education has been undergoing reforms in line with the demands of medical profession. The aim of the present study is to assess the impact of a traditional method like cadaveric dissection in teaching/learning anatomy at present times when medical schools are inclining towards student-centered, integrated, clinical application models. The article undertakes a review of literature and analyzes the observations made therein reflecting on the relevance of cadaveric dissection in anatomical education of 21st century. Despite the advent of modern technology and evolved teaching methods, dissection continues to remain a cornerstone of anatomy curriculum. Medical professionals of all levels believe that dissection enables learning anatomy with relevant clinical correlates. Moreover dissection helps to build discipline independent skills which are essential requirements of modern health care setup. It has been supplemented by other teaching/learning methods due to limited availability of cadavers in some countries. However, in the developing world due to good access to cadavers, dissection based teaching is central to anatomy education till date. Its utility is also reflected in the perception of students who are of the opinion that dissection provides them with a foundation critical to development of clinical skills. Researchers have even suggested that time has come to reinstate dissection as the core method of teaching gross anatomy to ensure safe medical practice. Nevertheless, as dissection alone cannot provide uniform learning experience hence needs to be complemented with other innovative learning methods in the future education model of anatomy. Anat Sci Educ 10: 286-299. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.

Cadaveric dissection as an educational tool for anatomical sciences in the 21st century.

This study investigates the effects of Problem Based Learning (PBL) assisted with Augmented Reality (AR) on learning achievement and attitude towards physics subjects as a part of science education. The sample of the study included 91 seventh graders from a province in the north of Turkey. A quasi-experimental design with two experimental groups and a control group was utilized. Based upon marker-based AR technologies, FenAR software was developed to support with PBL activities in the classroom. The experimental results indicated that integrating AR into PBL activities both increased students' learning achievement and promoted their positive attitudes towards physics subjects. This technology contributed to students' long-term retention of the concepts in the field of physics. In semi-structured interviews, the students emphasized that AR applications were more useful, realistic, and interesting for their learning; helped them to understand and analyse the problem scenarios. Apart from educational advantages, AR applications may lead to physical disorders among some of the students. It has been suggested that AR technology can be a potential and effective tool for activating students' positive emotions in PBL process. Moreover, implications on use of AR for physics education and recommendations for further studies are also discussed in the study.

Integrating augmented reality into problem based learning: The effects on learning achievement and attitude in physics education

Augmented reality (AR), a new generation of technology, has attracted the attention of educators in recent years. In this study, a MagicBook was developed for a neuroanatomy topic by using mobile augmented reality (mAR) technology. This technology integrates virtual learning objects into the real world and allow users to interact with the environment using mobile devices. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of learning anatomy via mAR on medical students' academic achievement and cognitive load. The mixed method was applied in the study. The random sample consisted of 70 second-year undergraduate medical students: 34 in an experimental group and 36 in a control group. Academic achievement test and cognitive load scale were used as data collection tool. A one-way MANOVA test was used for analysis. The experimental group, which used mAR applications, reported higher achievement and lower cognitive load. The use of mAR applications in anatomy education contributed to the formation of an effective and productive learning environment. Student cognitive load decreased as abstract information became concrete in printed books via multimedia materials in mAR applications. Additionally, students were able to access the materials in the MagicBook anytime and anywhere they wanted. The mobile learning approach helped students learn better by exerting less cognitive effort. Moreover, the sensory experience and real time interaction with environment may provide learning satisfaction and enable students to structure their knowledge to complete the learning tasks. Anat Sci Educ 9: 411-421. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.

Learning anatomy via mobile augmented reality: Effects on achievement and cognitive load.

The use of mobile devices that have high technical capabilities has increased in the last years. These devices are appropriate instructional tools reflecting the trends in modern education by provi...

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2382120520973222

A Model for Medical Students' Behavioral Intention to Use Mobile Learning.

In a 62-year-old male cadaver, high division of the sciatic nerve was observed bilaterally. Additionally, on the right side of the same cadaver, the common peroneal nerve passed just inferior to the piriformis muscle and the tibial nerve emerged inferior to the gemellus superior, between the gemellus superior and obturator internus muscles. Then, both of the nerves coursed posterior to the obturator internus, gemellus inferior and quadratus femoris muscles. The gemellus superior muscle, lying just posterior to the tibial nerve may cause to the symptoms of sciatica, because of the compression of the tibial nerve between the gemellus superior and obturator internus muscles. This pathology may lead to a new syndrome; the gemellus superior syndrome, just like the piriformis syndrome. As a conclusion, in the etiology and pathogenesis of sciatica, in addition to the priformis muscle, the abnormalities of the other gluteal external rotator muscles of the hip joint must also be taken into consideration by the clinicians. MR imaging of this region will be very helpful for the accurate diagnosis of this type of pathologies.

/pdf/a-case-of-bilateral-high-division-of-the-sciatic-nerves-au4n3imn5f.pdf

A case of bilateral high division of the sciatic nerves, together with a unilateral unusual course of the tibial nerve

Medical faculty students’ views on anatomy learning via mobile augmented reality technology

Background: The purpose of the study was to create computer-aided design models of the paranasal sinuses (frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid) and to perform virtual endoscopy (VE) to them by using virtual reality modelling language technique. Materials and methods: The visible human dataset was used as the input imaging data. The Surfdriver software package was applied on these images to reconstruct the paranasal sinuses as 3-dimensional (3D) computer-aided design models. These models were post-processed in Cinema 4D to perform the photorealistic imaging and VE of the paranasal sinuses. Results: The volumes of the maxillary sinuses were 24747.89 mm 3 on the right and 29008.78 mm 3 on the left. As for sphenoidal sinuses, an enormous variation was seen between the right and left cavities. The sphenoidal sinuses were 1995.90 mm3 on the right and 10228.93 mm 3 on the left while the frontal sinuses were 20805.67 mm 3 on the right and 18048.85 mm 3 on the left. The largest sinus was left maxillary sinus by volume. Right frontal sinus was the largest sinus by surface area. It was calculated as 6002.73 mm 2 . Our methodological outcomes proved that Surfdriver and Cinema 4D pair could be reliably used for 3D reconstructions, photo realistic imaging and creating 3D virtual environments from the serial sections of the anatomical structures. Conclusions: This technique allows students, researchers, and surgeons to perform noninvasive visualisation, simulation, and precise quantitative measurements of internal structures of the body. It was developed as a complementary tool for endoscopic surgery. It could be especially preferable for the patients who could not tolerate flexible or rigid endoscopy.

/pdf/the-paranasal-sinuses-three-dimensional-reconstruction-photo-2nezvinnkr.pdf

The paranasal sinuses: three-dimensional reconstruction, photo-realistic imaging, and virtual endoscopy.

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