Grazing animals exert pressure on the ground comparable to that of agricultural machinery. As a result, soil under pasture can be compacted. In grazing systems based on permanent pastures or rangelands, there is little opportunity to ameliorate poor soil physical conditions through tillage. Hence, it is important to understand the effects of grazing on soil physical properties and the consequent effects of these properties on pasture growth and composition. Most soils under grazed pasture, even those managed to minimise soil physical degradation, will be compacted to some extent. However, the magnitude of this compaction is usually small, and limited to the upper 50–150 mm of the soil. Compaction to greater depth, and other changes in soil physical properties, are more likely in recently tilled or wet soils. The response of pasture to the poorer soil conditions caused by grazing is difficult to determine, but it is likely to be small compared with the defoliation effects of grazing. Maintenance of a vigorous pasture should be a major aim of grazing management and would also achieve the secondary aim of maintaining acceptable soil physical conditions.

Grazing effects on soil physical properties and the consequences for pastures: a review

Crop yields can be reduced by soil compaction due to increased resistance to root growth, and decrease in water and nutrient use efficiencies. A field experiment was conducted during 1997–1998 and 1998–1999 on a sandy clay loam (fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Haplargids, USDA; Luvic Yermosol, FAO) to study subsoil compaction effects on root growth, nutrient uptake and chemical composition of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). Soil compaction was artificially created once at the start of the study. The 0.00–0.15 m soil was manually removed with a spade. The exposed layer was compacted with a mechanical compactor from 1.65 Mg m−3 (control plot) to a bulk density of 1.93 Mg m−3 (compacted plot). The topsoil was then again replaced above the compacted subsoil and levelled. Both compacted and control plots were hoed manually and levelled. Root length density, measured at flowering stage, decreased markedly with compaction during 1997–1998 but there was little effect during 1998–1999. The reduction in nutrient uptake by wheat due to compaction of the subsoil was 12–35% for N, 17–27% for P and up to 24% for K. The reduction in nutrient uptake in sorghum due to subsoil compaction was 23% for N, 16% for P, and 12% for K. Subsoil compaction increased N content in wheat grains in 1997–1998, but there was no effect on P and K contents of grains and N and P content of wheat straw or sorghum stover. During 1997–1998, K content of wheat straw was statistically higher in control treatment compared with compacted treatment. In 1998, P-content of sorghum leaves was higher in compacted treatment than uncompacted control. Root length density of wheat below 0.15 m depth was significantly reduced and was significantly and negatively correlated with soil bulk density. Therefore, appropriate measures such as periodic chiselling, controlled traffic, conservation tillage, and incorporating of crops with deep tap root system in rotation cycle is necessary to minimize the risks of subsoil compaction.

Subsoil compaction effects on crops in Punjab, Pakistan:

The relationships between the degree of compactness of soil and soil penetration resistance, air-filled porosity, temperature and root development, leaf area index (LAI) and yield of spring barley were studied. The data were obtained from field experiments on a silty loam and a loamy sand, with five wheel-compaction treatments prior to sowing in 1986–1989. An increase in the degree of compactness resulted in higher penetration resistance, lower air-filled porosity and smaller daily temperature fluctuations, a greater accumulation of roots in the topsoil and shallower rooting depth. The LAI and grain yields decreased sharply when the degree of compactness exceeded ≈88%.

Soil physical properties and growth of spring barley as related to the degree of compactness of two soils

Once the instability process e.g. erosion or landslides has been identified on a slope, the type of vegetation to best reinforce the soil can then be determined. Plants improve slope stability through changes in mechanical and hydrological properties of the root-soil matrix. The architecture of a plants root system will influence strongly these reinforcing properties. We explain how root morphology and biomechanics changes between species. An overview of vegetation effects on slope hydrology is given, along with an update on the use of models to predict the influence of vegetation on mechanical and hydrological properties of soil on slopes. In conclusion, the optimal root system types for improving slope stability are suggested.

How vegetation reinforces soil on slopes

The effect of puddling in reducing water losses and increasing rice yields is thought to be a function of its intensity. However, increased puddling intensity may have a negative effect on yield of succeeding wheat crop due to subsoil compaction. A 3-year field experiment was conducted on a sandy loam soil (coarse loamy, calcareous, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Ustochrept) to study the effect of puddling intensity and puddling depth on irrigation water use in rice (Oryza sativa) and the performance of rice and wheat (Triticum aestivum) crops. The treatments on main plots included (i) no puddling, (ii) and (iii) medium puddling-2 passes of a tractor-drawn cultivator followed by leveling with a wooden plank and (iv) and (v) high puddling-4 passes of a tractor-drawn cultivator followed by leveling with a wooden plank, each at shallow (5–6 cm) and normal (10–12 cm) depths. Percolation losses decreased by 14–16% with the increase in puddling intensity from medium to high, whereas the amount of irrigation water required decreased by 10–25%. Puddling depth did not affect percolation losses or the amount of irrigation water applied. Intensive puddling intensity resulted in higher root mass density (RMD) in 0–5 and 5–10 cm soil layers. In 0–5 cm soil layer, the RMD in the shallow-puddled plots was 17% more than in deeply puddled plots. Puddling treatments had no effect on total dry matter and grain yield of rice in any of the 3 years of study. During the third year, the RMD of wheat in the 0–15 cm depth of the deeply puddled plots was 7% larger than in shallow-puddled plots. At depths greater than 15 cm, the RMD was 11–68% less in the deeply puddled plots than in the shallow-puddled plots. RMD of wheat in the 0–15 cm soil layer increased from 302 μg cm−3 in 1994–1995 to 319 μg cm−3 in 1996–1997 whereas in the 15–30 cm layer it decreased from 85 to 47 μg cm−3. High puddling intensity increased the canopy temperature of wheat by 0.5–1.7 °C and decreased average xylem water potential by 4–7%. During the 1996–1997 season, the total dry matter and wheat grain yield of wheat were, respectively, 19 and 8% greater in the shallow-puddled plots than the deeply puddled plots.

Puddling depth and intensity effects in rice-wheat system on a sandy loam soil. II. Water use and crop performance

In an experiment designed to study the effect of soil compaction on growth of winter barley, different levels of compaction were induced by applying 0, 1 and 6 passes of a tractor to the entire area of the plots prior to drilling At the late tillering, booting and anthesis stages, root growth measurements were made, soil cone resistances were measured and tensiometer readings were taken With increasing number of tractor passes, cone resistance was found to increase at all depths, except for the third sampling in June, and root length decreased to depths of 03 m The exceptionally wet conditions during the spring of 1983 also had a major effect on root growth

Root growth of winter barley in a soil compacted by the passage of tractors

Roots of plants have been shown, under some circumstances, to increase soil strength. To test whether this applies to rice-growing soils, a pot experiment was conducted using a soil from East Java, Indonesia, to which a series of puddling-irrigation treatments was applied consistent with rice-growing soils and preparation techniques in the East Java region. Plants were grown in half of the pots. Measurements included the bearing capacity and shear vane resistance of soil 45 and 70 days after emergence, and root weight and plant height at Day 70. The results showed that in most cases rice roots increased both the bearing capacity and shearing resistance. A linear relationship between bearing capacity and shearing resistance was found, and agreed with published data for dry soils. The implication of the results for traffic in wet soils is discussed.

Effect of plant roots on soil strength

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Root growth of winter barley in a soil compacted by the passage of tractors

Effect of plant roots on soil strength