Background
This is an updated version of the original Cochrane review published in Issue 12, 2011. Phantom limb pain (PLP) is pain that arises in the missing limb after amputation and can be severe, intractable, and disabling. Various medications have been studied in the treatment of phantom pain. There is currently uncertainty in the optimal pharmacologic management of PLP.

Objectives
This review aimed to summarise the evidence of effectiveness of pharmacologic interventions in treating PLP.

Search methods
For this update, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL, the Cochrane Library), MEDLINE, and Embase for relevant studies. We ran the searches for the original review in September 2011 and subsequent searches for this update up to April 2016. We sought additional studies from clinical trials databases and reference lists of retrieved papers.

Selection criteria
We included randomised and quasi-randomised trials studying the effectiveness of pharmacologic interventions compared with placebo, another active treatment, or no treatment, in established PLP. We considered the following outcomes: change in pain intensity, function, sleep, depression or mood, quality of life, adverse events, treatment satisfaction, and withdrawals from the study.

Data collection and analysis
We independently assessed issues of study quality and extracted efficacy and adverse event data. Due to the wide variability in the studies, we did not perform a meta-analysis for all the interventions and outcomes, but attempted to pool the results of some studies where possible. We prepared a qualitative description and narrative summary of results. We assessed clinical heterogeneity by making qualitative comparisons of the populations, interventions, outcomes/outcome measures, and methods.

Main results
We added only one new study with 14 participants to this updated review. We included a 14 studies (10 with low risk of bias and 4 with unclear risk of bias overall) with a total of 269 participants. We added another drug class, botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), in particular botulinum toxin A (BoNT/A), to the group of medications reviewed previously. Our primary outcome was change in pain intensity. Most studies did not report our secondary outcomes of sleep, depression or mood, quality of life, treatment satisfaction, or withdrawals from the study.

BoNT/A did not improve phantom limb pain intensity during the six months of follow-up compared with lidocaine/methylprednisolone.

Compared with placebo, morphine (oral and intravenous) was effective in decreasing pain intensity in the short term with reported adverse events being constipation, sedation, tiredness, dizziness, sweating, voiding difficulty, vertigo, itching, and respiratory problems.

The N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists ketamine (versus placebo; versus calcitonin) and dextromethorphan (versus placebo), but not memantine, had analgesic effects. The adverse events of ketamine were more serious than placebo and calcitonin and included loss of consciousness, sedation, hallucinations, hearing and position impairment, and insobriety.

The results for gabapentin in terms of pain relief were conflicting, but combining the results favoured treatment group (gabapentin) over control group (placebo) (mean difference -1.16, 95% confidence interval -1.94 to -0.38; 2 studies). However, gabapentin did not improve function, depression score, or sleep quality. Adverse events experienced were somnolence, dizziness, headache, and nausea.

Compared with an active control benztropine mesylate, amitriptyline was not effective in PLP, with dry mouth and dizziness as the most frequent adverse events based on one study.

The findings for calcitonin (versus placebo; versus ketamine) and local anaesthetics (versus placebo) were variable. Adverse events of calcitonin were headache, vertigo, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, and hot and cold flushes. Most of the studies were limited by their small sample sizes.

Authors' conclusions
Since the last version of this review, we identified another study that added another form of medical therapy, BoNTs, specifically BoNT/A, to the list of pharmacologic interventions being reviewed for clinical efficacy in phantom limb pain. However, the results of this study did not substantially change the main conclusions. The short- and long-term effectiveness of BoNT/A, opioids, NMDA receptor antagonists, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, calcitonins, and local anaesthetics for clinically relevant outcomes including pain, function, mood, sleep, quality of life, treatment satisfaction, and adverse events remain unclear. Based on a small study, BoNT/A (versus lidocaine/methylprednisolone) does not decrease phantom limb pain. Morphine, gabapentin, and ketamine demonstrate favourable short-term analgesic efficacy compared with placebo. Memantine and amitriptyline may not be effective for PLP. However, results must be interpreted with caution, as they were based mostly on a small number of studies with limited sample sizes that varied considerably and also lacked long-term efficacy and safety outcomes. The direction of efficacy of calcitonin, local anaesthetics, and dextromethorphan needs further clarification. Overall, the efficacy evidence for the reviewed medications is thus far inconclusive. Larger and more rigorous randomised controlled trials are needed for us to reach more definitive conclusions about which medications would be useful for clinical practice.

Pharmacologic interventions for treating phantom limb pain.

Dry needling is a common treatment technique in orthopedic manual physical therapy. Although various dry needling approaches exist, the more common and best supported approach targets myofascial trigger points. This article aims to place trigger point dry needling within the context of pain sciences. From a pain science perspective, trigger points are constant sources of peripheral nociceptive input leading to peripheral and central sensitization. Dry needling cannot only reverse some aspects of central sensitization, it reduces local and referred pain, improves range of motion and muscle activation pattern, and alters the chemical environment of trigger points. Trigger point dry needling should be based on a thorough understanding of the scientific background of trigger points, the differences and similarities between active and latent trigger points, motor adaptation, and central sensitize application. Several outcome studies are included, as well as comments on dry needling and acupuncture.

/pdf/dry-needling-peripheral-and-central-considerations-3ip2o8x6hv.pdf

Dry needling — peripheral and central considerations

Botulinum toxin (BoNT) has been used as a treatment for excessive muscle stiffness, spasticity, and dystonia. BoNT for approximately 40 years, and has recently been used to treat various types of neuropathic pain. The mechanism by which BoNT acts on neuropathic pain involves inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators and peripheral neurotransmitters from sensory nerves. Recent journals have demonstrated that BoNT is effective for neuropathic pain, such as postherpetic neuralgia, trigeminal neuralgia, and peripheral neuralgia. The purpose of this review is to summarize the experimental and clinical evidence of the mechanism by which BoNT acts on various types of neuropathic pain and describe why BoNT can be applied as treatment. The PubMed database was searched from 1988 to May 2017. Recent studies have demonstrated that BoNT injections are effective treatments for post-herpetic neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, trigeminal neuralgia, and intractable neuropathic pain, such as poststroke pain and spinal cord injury.

Botulinum Toxin for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), derived from Clostridium botulinum, has been used therapeutically for focal dystonia, spasticity, and chronic migraine. Its spectrum as a potential treatment for neuropathic pain has grown. Recent opinions on the mechanism behind the antinociceptive effects of BoNT suggest that it inhibits the release of peripheral neurotransmitters and inflammatory mediators from sensory nerves. There is some evidence showing the axonal transport of BoNT, but it remains controversial. The aim of this review is to summarize the experimental and clinical evidence of the antinociceptive effects, mechanisms, and therapeutic applications of BoNT for neuropathic pain conditions, including postherpetic neuralgia, complex regional pain syndrome, and trigeminal neuralgia. The PubMed and OvidSP databases were searched from 1966 to May 2015. We assessed levels of evidence according to the American Academy of Neurology guidelines. Recent studies have suggested that BoNT injection is an effective treatment for postherpetic neuralgia and is likely efficient for trigeminal neuralgia and post-traumatic neuralgia. BoNT could also be effective as a treatment for diabetic neuropathy. It has not been proven to be an effective treatment for occipital neuralgia or complex regional pain syndrome.

Botulinum Toxin for Neuropathic Pain: A Review of the Literature

Background and Purpose— Shoulder pain is frequent after stroke and interferes with the rehabilitative process and outcome. However, treatments used for hemiplegic shoulder pain are limited and largely ineffective. This prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled study was conducted to compare the efficacies of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) and triamcinolone acetonide (TA) on hemiplegic shoulder pain and their effects on arm function in patients with stroke. Methods— Twenty-nine hemiplegic stroke patients with shoulder pain (duration ≤24 months, pain on numeric rating scale ≥6/10) were randomized into 2 groups. One group received intramuscular injections of BoNT-A (BOTOX 100 U total) during one session to the infraspinatus, pectoralis and subscapularis muscles in conjunction with an intraarticular injection of normal saline to painful shoulder joint, whereas the other group received an intraarticular injection of TA (40 mg) and an intramuscular injection of normal saline to the same muscles. Outcome...

/pdf/intramuscular-botulinum-toxin-a-reduces-hemiplegic-shoulder-1qjq0t8jni.pdf

Intramuscular Botulinum Toxin-A Reduces Hemiplegic Shoulder Pain A Randomized, Double-Blind, Comparative Study Versus Intraarticular Triamcinolone Acetonide

Recently we were able to describe the successful treatment of phantom pain and stump pain with botulinum toxin A in a first pilot study. This case report over a 1-year period now demonstrates that long-term treatment for this indication is possible. We injected 4 x 25 IU of botulinum toxin A (Botox) into trigger points of the stump muscles of a lower limb amputee who suffered from severe phantom and stump pain. With four injections performed every 3 months, the patient became almost completely pain-free, and his intrathecal morphine therapy could be reduced to 40% of the initial dose. Intrathecal clonidine was eliminated completely, as were the oral analgesics. A surgical treatment suggested for the stump pain was no longer necessary, and we suppose that botulinum toxin can also improve the tolerance of artificial limbs in cases of stump pain.

[Long-term treatment of phantom- and stump pain with Botulinum toxin type A over 12 months. A first clinical observation].

Den Einsatz von BTX A (Botox®) zur Behandlung von Phantom- und Stumpfschmerzen konnten wir kurzlich in einer ersten Pilotstudie vorstellen. In der jetzigen Kasuistik beschreiben wir nun eine erfolgreiche Langzeitbehandlung bei dieser Indikation. Wir injizierten unserem Patienten, der unter erheblichen Postamputationsschmerzen litt, je 25 IE BTX A in 4 Triggerpunkte der Stumpfmuskulatur. Die Injektion erfolgte 4-mal im Abstand von ca. 3 Monaten und ergab eine annahernd komplette Schmerzfreiheit fur seine Phantom- und Stumpfschmerzen uber mittlerweile mehr als ein Jahr. Die intrathekale Morphindosis konnte daraufhin auf 40% gesenkt werden, intrathekales Clonidin wurde ebenso abgesetzt wie jegliche orale Zusatzmedikation. Eine wegen der Stumpfschmerzen diskutierte, chirurgische Therapie wurde entbehrlich, und wir vermuten, dass Botulinumtoxin auch in Fallen schmerzbedingt eingeschrankter Prothesennutzung hilfreich sein konnte.

Langzeitbehandlung von Phantom- und Stumpfschmerzen mit Botulinumtoxin Typ A über 12 Monate

Fragestellung
Lokalisationen muskularer Triggerpunkte (TP) in Amputationsstumpfen und deren Auswirkungen auf Phantomwahrnehmungen sollten erstmals untersucht werden.

Auslösung von Phantomschmerzen und -sensationen durch muskuläre Stumpftriggerpunkte nach Beinamputationen

Recently we were able to describe the successful treatment of phantom pain and stump pain with botulinum toxin A in a first pilot study. This case report over a 1-year period now demonstrates that long-term treatment forthis indication is possible. We injected 4x25 IU of botulinum toxin A (Botox) into trigger points of the stump muscles of a lower limb amputee who suffered from severe phantom and stump pain. With four injections performed every 3 months,the patient became almost completely pain-free, and his intrathecal morphine therapy could be reduced to 40% of the initial dose. Intrathecal clonidine was eliminated completely, as were the oral analgesics. A surgical treatment suggested for the stump pain was no longer necessary,and we suppose that botulinum toxin can also improve the tolerance of artificial limbs in cases of stump pain.

Langzeitbehandlung von Phantom- und Stumpfschmerzen mit Botulinumtoxin Typ A über 12 Monate: Eine erste klinische Beobachtung

Bei einem letztlich nicht geklarten Pathomechanismus stellt die Behandlung von Phantom-und Stumpfschmerzen nach wie vor eine schwierige Aufgabe dar.Eine Behandlung mit Botulinum-Toxin wurde bisher nicht beschrieben. Wir berichten uber die erfolgreiche Behandlung von 4 Patienten mit Phantomschmerzen der unteren Extremitat seit mehr als 3 Jahren mit der Injektion von je 25 IE Botulin-Toxin-A in 4 Triggerpunkte der Stumpfmuskulatur. Drei der 4 Patienten litten unter Schmerzattacken und berichteten eine Reduktion der Attackenanzahl um uber 90%, in 2 Fallen sank die Schmerzdauer der Attacken von 1–2 h auf wenige Minuten. Die Phantomschmerzstarke reduzierte sich bei allen Patienten um 60–80%. Schmerzbedingte Durchschlafstorungen verschwanden bei den beiden betroffenen Patienten,3 Patienten berichteten eine motorische Schwachung der (mentalen) Phantomgliedbeweglichkeit. Mogliche Wirkmechanismen werden diskutiert. Die geschilderten klinischen Beobachtungen werden derzeit in einer prospektiven, placebokontrollierten Doppelblindstudie uberpruft.

Botulinum-Toxin-A in der Behandlung von Phantomschmerzen

Handle everyday research tasks with reliable, citation-backed results

Your personal Research Agent to handle research tasks with citation-backed results

Popular Tasks used by Researchers

How can I help with your research?

Meet SciSpace

Get more enhanced response by uploading the PDFs you want me to reference.

No relevant PDFs in your library

SciSpace is the AI research assistant for academics. Run systematic literature reviews on 280M+ papers, and write papers with cited sources. Trusted by 1M+ students, PhDs & researchers.

SciSpace | AI for Research

Analyze PDFs

Code & Manuscripts

Funding & Grants

Literature & Patents

Medical & Clinical Data

Systematic Review

Visualize & Present

Web & Data

Build a Google Scholar-like website for your research.

Build a website

Create charts and images for your research

Create a Chart

Write a paper for submission to a journal

Draft a manuscript

Patent Search

Design eye-catching scientific posters in minutes.

Scientific Poster Generation

Systematic Literature Review

One task is running at the moment. Your messages will be shown right after.

Drag and drop or click here to browse

Loved by <highlight>1 million+</highlight> researchers

Extract a list of specific topics and their sources from unstructured text

Topics

Compare and analyze relevant papers that matches with your search

Papers

Get insights from PDFs and bookmarked papers from your library

My library

Recent searches

Try searching for:

Catch AI-generated content in scholarly and non-scholarly content

{ai} Detector

Ai Writer

Get PDF Summaries, highlighted text explanations 

Chat with PDF

Effortlessly create in-text citations and bibliographies in APA and 2,500 other formats

Citation generator

Get explanations, summaries, and answers on academic papers

Ease up your research workflow with {scispace}'s cohort of exciting AI tools

Elevate your academic writing skills and convey your ideas the way you want

Paraphraser

Explore our range of reading and writing tools

Your file is being prepared and should be ready in a few minutes. If it's a large file, it might take a bit longer. You can close this window, and we'll email you the file when it's done.

You have reached a maximum limit of <strong>{limit}</strong> columns in the table. Remove at least <strong>1</strong> column to add or create another one.

S. Scheicher

Author Tools

Chat about Author