Water quality encompasses the water physical, biological, and chemical parameters. It generally affects the fish growth and welfare. Thus, the success of a commercial aquaculture project depends on supplying the optimum water quality for prompt fish growth at the minimum cost of resources. Although the aquaculture environment is a complicated system, depending on various water quality variables, only less of them have a critical role. One of these vital parameters is dissolved oxygen (DO) level, which requires continuous oversight in aquaculture systems. In addition, the processes of natural stream refinement require suitable DO levels in order to extend for aerobic life forms. The depletion of DO concentration (called hypoxia) in pond water causes great stress on fish where DO levels that remain below 1–2 mg/L for a few hours can adversely affect fish growth resulting in fish death. Furthermore, hypoxia has substantial effects on fish physiological and immune responses, making them more susceptible to diseases. Therefore, to avoid disease outbreak in modern aquaculture production systems where fish are intensified and more crowded, increasing attention should be taken into account on DO levels.

Fish response to hypoxia stress: growth, physiological, and immunological biomarkers.

Stress of aquatic animals occurs due to physical and physiological disturbances in the aquatic environment or system when transportation, crowding, handling or changes of physical and chemical factors take place. There are three regulatory systems having a vital role in stress response: the neural, endocrine and immune systems. Fish exhibit multiple genomic and physiological responses to adjust the compensatory or adaptive mechanism that allows them to mitigate the stressors, maintain their haemostasis and survive. In this review, we describe multiple important genes that are associated with responses to environmental and husbandry stressors and that could be used as biomarkers of environmental and husbandry stressors in fish. The described environmental and husbandry stressors include salinity, temperature, hypoxia and hyperoxia, confinement, density and handling. The main role of stress response in aquatic animals is to compensate or adapt their biological systems and arrange the metabolism to afford the energy required by the stressor and a wide array of metabolic processes and pathways are involved. We summarized and discussed highly significant genes in several organs and tissues that are involved and active during this adaption process. The traditional stress biomarkers in some circumstances have some difficulties in interpretation of results and lead to tricky diagnosis and searching and understanding alternative tools is critical for aquaculture, fisheries and fish welfare. Using genomic tools to study the candidate genes associated with stress responses are often unique signatures or imprints of specific stressors and could determine early signs of stressors.

Transcriptional stress responses to environmental and husbandry stressors in aquaculture species

1. Introduction 2. Effects of Stressors on the Immune Response 2.1. Suppressive Versus Enhancing Effects 2.2. Perception of Stress After Immune Stimulation: Systemic Versus Local Responses 2.3. Stress and the Cellular and Humoral Immune Response 3. Organization of the Immune Response Following Stress: The Neuroimmunoendocrine Connection and the Role of the Head Kidney 4. Effects of Hormones on the Immune System 4.1. Hypothalamic Hormones 4.2. Pituitary Hormones 4.3. Interrenal Hormones 4.4. Receptor-Mediating Action of Cortisol in Fish Immunity During Stress Response 4.5. Somatotropic Axis and Fish Immune System 5. Environmental Stressors and Fish Immunity 5.1. Environmental Salinity 5.2. Temperature and Seasonality 6. Future Directions The endocrine-immune relationship of fish, particularly related to the stress response, is mediated by the close interaction of hormones and cytokines. In essence, stress can depress certain elements of the immune system and render fish vulnerable to infection and disease. This chapter summarizes the effects of stressors on disease resistance and the immune system and updates the knowledge on endocrine regulation of the immune system in fish, the effects at systemic and local levels, and the organization of the immune responses under stressed conditions, with special emphasis on the roles of hormones, their receptors, and system interactions. Basically, low levels of severity of stress (eustress) may lead to enhanced immune competence while greater severities tend to be immunosuppressive. The immune response to stressors are mediated by the endocrine system at both central and peripheral levels.

Stress and Disease Resistance: Immune System and Immunoendocrine Interactions

To date, gene-environment (GxE) interaction studies in depression have been limited to hypothesis-based candidate genes, since genome-wide (GWAS)-based GxE interaction studies would require enormous datasets with genetics, environmental, and clinical variables. We used a novel, cross-species and cross-tissues “omics” approach to identify genes predicting depression in response to stress in GxE interactions. We integrated the transcriptome and miRNome profiles from the hippocampus of adult rats exposed to prenatal stress (PNS) with transcriptome data obtained from blood mRNA of adult humans exposed to early life trauma, using a stringent statistical analyses pathway. Network analysis of the integrated gene lists identified the Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1), Alpha-2-Macroglobulin (A2M), and Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 (TGF-β1) as candidates to be tested for GxE interactions, in two GWAS samples of adults either with a range of childhood traumatic experiences (Grady Study Project, Atlanta, USA) or with separation from parents in childhood only (Helsinki Birth Cohort Study, Finland). After correction for multiple testing, a meta-analysis across both samples confirmed six FoxO1 SNPs showing significant GxE interactions with early life emotional stress in predicting depressive symptoms. Moreover, in vitro experiments in a human hippocampal progenitor cell line confirmed a functional role of FoxO1 in stress responsivity. In secondary analyses, A2M and TGF-β1 showed significant GxE interactions with emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in the Grady Study. We therefore provide a successful ‘hypothesis-free’ approach for the identification and prioritization of candidate genes for GxE interaction studies that can be investigated in GWAS datasets.

/pdf/foxo1-a2m-and-tgf-b1-three-novel-genes-predicting-depression-4n3t3fghda.pdf

FoxO1, A2M, and TGF-β1: three novel genes predicting depression in gene X environment interactions are identified using cross-species and cross-tissues transcriptomic and miRNomic analyses

Physiological and proteomic responses to single and repeated hypoxia in juvenile Eurasian perch under domestication--clues to physiological acclimation and humoral immune modulations.

Spleen immune status is affected after acute handling stress but not regulated by cortisol in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis.

Domestication might be a possible way to reduce the physiological response to long-term stressors and deleterious effects on immunity. The present study aimed to evaluate the chronic immune response induced by repeated emersions and the possible impact of domestication by comparing farmed Eurasian perch with short (F1) and long (F4) captive-life history. In the first experiment, fish were exposed to a single emersion and physiological stress response was measured in the short term to characterize fish sensitivity to the tested stressor. Serum cortisol and glucose elevated within 6 h post-stress and splenosomatic index (SSI) decreased within 48 h, indicating that the species was affected by emersion stressor. In the second experiment, F1 and F4 generations were submitted to repeated water emersions (3 times/week during 44 days). On day 9, 18 and 44, samplings were performed 48 h post-stressor to highlight any sustained disruption of immune system. Serum cortisol, glucose, SSI and lysozyme activity were evaluated and serum proteome was analyzed using 2D-DIGE. Any of the tested variables were affected by repeated emersions and proteomic analysis only revealed that alpha-2 macroglobulins (a2Ms) were up-regulated in the serum of stressed individuals. Domestication also resulted in the up-regulation of five a2M isoforms and down-regulation of complement C3 and Ig light chain proteins, independently of any stressor exposure. In conclusion, the results suggested that repeated emersions are not severe stressors for Eurasian perch, probably explaining why domestication had no influence on fish responses. Changes associated with domestication are highly complex and certainly need further investigations.

Influence of domestication process on immune response to repeated emersion stressors in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis, L.)

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Spleen immune status is affected after acute handling stress but not regulated by cortisol in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis.

Influence of domestication process on immune response to repeated emersion stressors in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis, L.)