R EIEW A R TCLE Abstract As an emerging topic, photonic-assisted microwave measurements with distinct features such as wide frequency coverage, large instantaneous bandwidth, low frequencydependent loss, and immunity to electromagnetic interference, have been extensively studied recently. In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advances in photonic microwave measurements, including microwave spectrum analysis, instantaneous frequency measurement, microwave channelization, Doppler frequency-shift measurement, angle-of-arrival detection, time–frequency analysis, compressive sensing, and phase-noise measurement. A photonic microwave radar, as a functional measurement system, is also reviewed. The performance of the photonic measurement solutions is evaluated and compared with the electronic solutions. Future prospects using photonic integrated circuits and software-defined architectures to further improve the measurement performance are also discussed.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/lpor.201600019

Photonics for microwave measurements

Integration of mm-wave multiple-antenna systems on silicon-based processes enables complex, low-cost systems for high-frequency communication and sensing applications. In this paper, the transmitter and LO-path phase-shifting sections of the first fully integrated 77-GHz phased-array transceiver are presented. The SiGe transceiver utilizes a local LO-path phase-shifting architecture to achieve beam steering and includes four transmit and receive elements, along with the LO frequency generation and distribution circuitry. The local LO-path phase-shifting scheme enables a robust distribution network that scales well with increasing frequency and/or number of elements while providing high-resolution phase shifts. Each element of the heterodyne transmitter generates +12.5 dBm of output power at 77 GHz with a bandwidth of 2.5 GHz leading to a 4-element effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 24.5 dBm. Each on-chip PA has a maximum saturated power of +17.5 dBm at 77 GHz. The phased-array performance is measured using an internal test option and achieves 12-dB peak-to-null ratio with two transmit and receive elements active

/pdf/a-77-ghz-phased-array-transceiver-with-on-chip-antennas-in-4jwlrsdlho.pdf

A 77-GHz Phased-Array Transceiver With On-Chip Antennas in Silicon: Transmitter and Local LO-Path Phase Shifting

A radar system with an ultra-wide FMCW ramp bandwidth of 25.6 GHz (≈32%) around a center frequency of 80 GHz is presented. The system is based on a monostatic fully integrated SiGe transceiver chip, which is stabilized using conventional fractional-N PLL chips at a reference frequency of 100 MHz. The achieved in-loop phase noise is ≈ -88 dBc/Hz (10 kHz offset frequency) for the center frequency and below ≈-80 dBc/Hz in the wide frequency band of 25.6 GHz for all offset frequencies >;1 kHz. The ultra-wide PLL-stabilization was achieved using a reverse frequency position mixer in the PLL (offset-PLL) resulting in a compensation of the variation of the oscillators tuning sensitivity with the variation of the N-divider in the PLL. The output power of the transceiver chip, as well as of the mm-wave module (containing a waveguide transition), is sufficiently flat versus the output frequency (variation <;3 dB). In radar measurements using the full bandwidth an ultra-high spatial resolution of 7.12 mm was achieved. The standard deviation between repeated measurements of the same target is 0.36 μm.

An Ultra-Wideband 80 GHz FMCW Radar System Using a SiGe Bipolar Transceiver Chip Stabilized by a Fractional-N PLL Synthesizer

A complete analysis on subharmonically injection-locked PLLs develops fundamental theory for subharmonic locking phenomenon. It explains the noise shaping phenomenon, locking range and behavior, PVT tolerance, and pseudo locking issue. All of the analyses are verified by real chip measurements. Two 20-GHz PLLs based on the proposed theory are designed and fabricated in 90-nm CMOS technology to demonstrate the superiority and robustness of this technique. The first chip aims at low-noise/low-power/high-divide-ratio design, achieving 149-fs rms jitter (integrated from 100 Hz to 1 GHz) while consuming 38 mW from a 1.3-V supply. The second prototype shoots for the lowest noise performance, presenting 85-fs rms jitter (the same integration interval) with a power dissipation of 105 mW. The jitter generation (from 50 kHz to 80 MHz) measures 48 fs, which is at least twice as small as that of any other known circuits.

Study of Subharmonically Injection-Locked PLLs

A waveguide bi-directional amplifier module is illuminated by a downstream illumination source and an upstream illumination source. The illumination sources are coupled to an array having waveguide to microstrip converters that provide for upstream and downstream electrical signals. Switchable amplifiers provide for amplification in both directions for the electrical signals and the converters coherently combine the output of the amplifiers to provide increased power to the electromagnetic wave entering the waveguide.

Bi-directional amplifier module for insertion between microwave transmission channels

Two compact single-chip 94-GHz frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) radar modules have been developed for high-resolution sensing under adverse conditions and environments. The first module contains a monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) consisting of a mechanically and electrically tunable voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) with a buffer amplifier, 10-dB coupler, medium-power and a low-noise amplifier, balanced rat-race high electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) diode mixer, and a driver amplifier to increase the local-oscillator signal level. The overall chip-size of the FMCW radar MMIC is 2/spl times/3.5 mm/sup 2/. For use with a single transmit-receive antenna, a 94-GHz microstrip hexaferrite circulator was implemented in the module. The radar sensor achieved a tuning range of 1 GHz, an output signal power of 1.5 mW, and a conversion loss of 2 dB. The second FMCW radar sensor uses an MMIC consisting of a varactor-tuned VCO with injection port, very compact transmit and receive amplifiers, and a single-ended resistive mixer. To enable single-antenna operation, the external circulator was replaced by a combination of a Wilkinson divider and a Lange coupler integrated on the MMIC. The circuit features coplanar technology and cascode HEMTs for compact size and low cost. These techniques result in a particularly small overall chip-size of only 2/spl times/3 mm/sup 2/. The packaged 94-GHz FMCW radar module achieved a tuning range of 6 GHz, an output signal power of 1.5 mW, and a conversion loss of 5 dB. The RF performance of the radar module was successfully verified by real-time monitoring the time flow of a gas-assisted injection molding process.

Compact single-chip W-band FMCW radar modules for commercial high-resolution sensor applications

A low-cost 94-GHz monolithically integrated coplanar FMCW radar chip has been developed, using 0.15-/spl mu/m AlGaAs-InGaAs-GaAs PM-HEMT technology. The chip includes a VCO, electrically tunable over several gigahertz, transmit and receive amplifiers, a mixer, and a directional coupler. The monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) are as small as 8 mm/sup 2/, delivering up to 10 mW of radio frequency (RF) power at a DC power consumption of 0.7 W. The receiver noise figure is 6-7 dB, and the conversion gain is 10 dB.

Single-chip coplanar 94-GHz FMCW radar sensors

The efficient stabilization of high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) oscillator monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) for W-band applications, using a new approach of high-order subharmonic injection locking, is presented. Transmission- and reflection-type injection locking techniques are applied to stabilize 94-GHz oscillators based on GaAs pseudomorphic-HEMT technology. A voltage-controlled oscillator MMIC was developed, consisting of the oscillator circuit and an integrated harmonic generator that can be stabilized by injection power levels of -45 dBm at 94 GHz using reflection-type injection locking, allowing reference frequencies as low as the fifteenth to twenty-first subharmonic as the input for the harmonic generator. Additionally, an injection-locked phase-locked loop (PLL) was developed, which enhances the locking range from 30 MHz to 1 GHz, using the twenty-first subharmonic as a reference signal. The combination of simple synchronization to a low-frequency reference signal and the control of the synchronization in the injection-locked PLL allows the generation of stable and low-noise millimeter-wave signals with a fully integrated MMIC source.

W-band HEMT-oscillator MMICs using subharmonic injection locking

Millimeter wave harmonic oscillators taking advantage of the push-push principle are demonstrated, allowing the use of the second harmonic of the oscillators to extend the applicable frequency range of standard pseudomorphic HEMTs to 94 and 140 GHz. Two configuration schemes are realized. An improved approach using a drain-connected pair of oscillators for efficient and compact circuit design and high output power is presented. Using this approach, oscillators at 94 GHz and 135 GHz were developed, with more than 0 dBm and -2 dBm output power and a high suppression of the fundamental signal of 38 dBc and 20 dBc, respectively. All MMICs were realized in a standard 0.13 /spl mu/m pHEMT technology using optical stepper lithography.

Push-push oscillators for 94 and 140 GHz applications using standard pseudomorphic GaAs HEMTs

A new integrated W-band frequency source MMIC is presented which consists of a 94 GHz voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) with large tuning range and a phase comparator, forming a subharmonic injection-locked phase-locked loop (ILPLL). The ILPLL combines conventional injection-locking with an additional phase control loop to improve the locking range of the oscillator significantly. The 4th subharmonic frequency is used as the reference signal. The locking range was increased from 80 MHz without ILPLL to 4.5 GHz with ILPLL by closing the loop with an external DC amplifier. A phase noise of -83 dBc/Hz at 100 kHz offset was achieved. Pseudomorphic GaAs HEMT's and a coplanar circuit topology were used to allow integration into complex single-chip subsystems and flip-chip packaging.

Fully integrated 94-GHz subharmonic injection-locked PLL circuit

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