In nearly all eukaryotes, at least some individuals inherit mitochondrial and chloroplast genes from only one parent. There is no single mechanism of uniparental inheritance: organelle gene inheritance is blocked by a variety of mechanisms and at different stages of reproduction in different species. Frequent changes in the pattern of organelle gene inheritance during evolution suggest that it is subject to varying selective pressures. Organelle genes often fail to recombine even when inherited biparentally; consequently, their inheritance is asexual. Sexual reproduction is apparently less important for genes in organelles than for nuclear genes, probably because there are fewer of them. As a result organelle sex can be lost because of selection for special reproductive features such as oogamy or because uniparental inheritance reduces the spread of cytoplasmic parasites and selfish organelle DNA.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/92/25/11331.full.pdf

Uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial and chloroplast genes: mechanisms and evolution.

Summary It is generally assumed that mitochondrial genomes are uniparentally transmitted, homoplasmic and nonrecombining. However, these assumptions draw largely from early studies on animal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). In this review, we show that plants, animals and fungi are all characterized by episodes of biparental inheritance, recombination among genetically distinct partners, and selfish elements within the mitochondrial genome, but that the extent of these phenomena may vary substantially across taxa. We argue that occasional biparental mitochondrial transmission may allow organisms to achieve the best of both worlds by facilitating mutational clearance but continuing to restrict the spread of selfish genetic elements. We also show that methodological biases and disproportionately allocated study effort are likely to have influenced current estimates of the extent of biparental inheritance, heteroplasmy and recombination in mitochondrial genomes from different taxa. Despite these complications, there do seem to be discernible similarities and differences in transmission dynamics and likelihood of recombination of mtDNA in plant, animal and fungal taxa that should provide an excellent opportunity for comparative investigation of the evolution of mitochondrial genome dynamics.

/pdf/inheritance-and-recombination-of-mitochondrial-genomes-in-1tfaqvt6pb.pdf

Inheritance and recombination of mitochondrial genomes in plants, fungi and animals.

Maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA by diverse mechanisms to eliminate paternal mitochondrial DNA.

Maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA has long been regarded as a major paradox in developmental biology. While some confusion may still persist in popular science, research data clearly document that the paternal sperm-borne mitochondria of most mammalian species enter the ooplasm at fertilization and are specifically targeted for degradation by the resident ubiquitin system. Ubiquitin is a proteolytic chaperone that forms covalently linked polyubiquitin chains on the targeted proteinaceous substrates. The polyubiquitin tag redirects the substrate proteins to a 26-S proteasome, a multi-subunit proteolytic organelle. Thus, specific proteasomal inhibitors reversibly block sperm mitochondrial degradation in ooplasm. Lysosomal degradation and the activity of membrane-lipoperoxidating enzyme 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX) may also contribute to sperm mitochondrial degradation in the ooplasm, but probably is not crucial. Prohibitin, the major protein of the inner mitochondrial membrane, appears to be ubiquitinated in the sperm mitochondria. Occasional occurrence of paternal inheritance of mtDNA has been suggested in mammals including humans. While most such evidence has been widely disputed, it warrants further examination. Of particular concern is the documented heteroplasmy, i.e. mixed mtDNA inheritance after ooplasmic transplantation. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) has inherent potential for delaying the degradation of sperm mitochondria. However, paternal mtDNA inheritance after ICSI has not been documented so far.

https://www.rbmojournal.com/article/S1472-6483(10)60495-6/pdf

Degradation of paternal mitochondria after fertilization: implications for heteroplasmy, assisted reproductive technologies and mtDNA inheritance

The genetics of sex determination remain mysterious in many organisms, including some that are otherwise well studied. Here we report the discovery and analysis of the mating-type locus of the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum. Three forms of a single genetic locus specify this species' three mating types: two versions of the locus are entirely different in sequence, and the third resembles a composite of the other two. Single, unrelated genes are sufficient to determine two of the mating types, whereas homologs of both these genes are required in the composite type. The key genes encode polypeptides that possess no recognizable similarity to established protein families. Sex determination in the social amoebae thus appears to use regulators that are unrelated to any others currently known.

/pdf/sex-determination-in-the-social-amoeba-dictyostelium-38ec3l54kt.pdf

Sex Determination in the Social Amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum

SUMMARY: Restriction endonuclease analysis was done on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 19 plasmodial strains of Physarum polycephalum. The extent of mtDNA variation among these strains was high in comparison with other organisms, and provides a useful source of cytoplasmic genetic markers. The strains were classified into seven groups according to their mtDNA types. Although plasmodia of P. polycephalum are diploid, formed by fusion of amoebal isogametes, each of the 19 plasmodia possessed mtDNA of only a single type. The transmission pattern of mtDNA during plasmodium formation was studied by mating pairs of amoebal strains that contained mtDNA of different types. Transmission was uniparental; the plasmodia that were formed carried mtDNA with the restriction pattern of only one of the two parental types. Since diploid zygotes develop into plasmodia by repeated mitotic cycles in the absence of cell division, it is clear that this uniparental transmission of mtDNA does not depend upon random partitioning either of mitochondria or of mtDNA molecules during cell division.

Polymorphism and uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in Physarum polycephalum.

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Polymorphism and uniparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in Physarum polycephalum.