During the past 15 years, the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris has developed into a highly successful system for the production of a variety of heterologous proteins. The increasing popularity of this particular expression system can be attributed to several factors, most importantly: (1) the simplicity of techniques needed for the molecular genetic manipulation of P. pastoris and their similarity to those of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, one of the most well-characterized experimental systems in modern biology; (2) the ability of P. pastoris to produce foreign proteins at high levels, either intracellularly or extracellularly; (3) the capability of performing many eukaryotic post-translational modifications, such as glycosylation, disulfide bond formation and proteolytic processing; and (4) the availability of the expression system as a commercially available kit. In this paper, we review the P. pastoris expression system: how it was developed, how it works, and what proteins have been produced. We also describe new promoters and auxotrophic marker/host strain combinations which extend the usefulness of the system.

http://www.biotechlab.ch/UserFiles/File/787339_Ref_CererghinoCregg2000.pdf

Heterologous protein expression in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris

Identification of a novel aspartic protease (Asp 2) as beta-secretase.

The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris is now one of the standard tools used in molecular biology for the generation of recombinant protein. P. pastoris has demonstrated its most powerful success as a large-scale (fermentation) recombinant protein production tool. What began more than 20 years ago as a program to convert abundant methanol to a protein source for animal feed has been developed into what is today two important biological tools: a model eukaryote used in cell biology research and a recombinant protein production system. To date well over 200 heterologous proteins have been expressed in P. pastoris. Significant advances in the development of new strains and vectors, improved techniques, and the commercial availability of these tools coupled with a better understanding of the biology of Pichia species have led to this microbe's value and power in commercial and research labs alike.

Recombinant protein expression in Pichia pastoris.

The β-amyloid protein (Aβ) is derived by proteolytic processing of the amyloid protein precursor (APP). Cleavage of APP by β-secretase generates a C-terminal fragment (APP-CTFβ), which is subsequently cleaved by γ-secretase to produce Aβ. The aim of this study was to examine the cleavage of APP-CTFβ by γ-secretase in primary cortical neurons from transgenic mice engineered to express the human APP-CTFβ sequence. Neurons were prepared from transgenic mouse cortex and proteins labelled by incubation with [35S]methionine and [35S]cysteine. Labelled APP-CTFβ and Aβ were then immunoprecipitated with a monoclonal antibody (WO2) specific for the transgene sequences. Approximately 30% of the human APP-CTFβ (hAPP-CTFβ) was converted to human Aβ (hAβ), which was rapidly secreted. The remaining 70% of the hAPP-CTFβ was degraded by an alternative pathway. The cleavage of hAPP-CTFβ to produce hAβ was inhibited by specific γ-secretase inhibitors. However, treatment with proteasome inhibitors caused an increase in both hAPP-CTFβ and hAβ levels, suggesting that the alternative pathway was proteasome-dependent. A preparation of recombinant 20S proteasome was found to cleave a recombinant cytoplasmic domain fragment of APP (APPcyt) directly. The study suggests that in primary cortical neurons, APP-CTFβ is degraded by two distinct pathways, one involving γ-secretase, which produces Aβ, and a second major pathway involving direct cleavage of APP-CTFβ within the cytoplasmic domain by the proteasome. These results raise the possibility that defective proteasome function could lead to an increase in Aβ production in the AD brain.

https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.0014-2956.2001.02465.x

The C-terminal fragment of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid protein precursor is degraded by a proteasome-dependent mechanism distinct from gamma-secretase.

Although great advances in elucidating the molecular basis and pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have been made and multifarious novel therapeutic approaches have been developed, AD remains an incurable disease. Evidence shows that AD neuropathology occurs decades before clinical presentation. AD is divided into three stages: preclinical stage, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and AD dementia. In the natural world, some animals, such as non-human primates (NHPs) and canines, can develop spontaneous AD-like dementia. However, most animals do not develop AD. With the development of transgenic techniques, both invertebrate and vertebrate animals have been employed to uncover the mechanisms of AD and study treatment methods. Most AD research focuses on early-onset familial AD (FAD) because FAD is associated with specific genetic mutations. However, there are no well-established late-onset sporadic AD (SAD) animal models because SAD is not directly linked to any genetic mutation, and multiple environmental factors are involved. Moreover, the widely used animal models are not able to sufficiently recapitulate the pathological events that occur in the MCI or preclinical stages. This review summarizes the common models used to study AD, from yeast to NHP models, and discusses the different applications, evaluation methods, and challenges related to AD animal models, as well as prospects for the evolution of future studies.

https://doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.289

Animal models of Alzheimer’s disease: Applications, evaluation, and perspectives

betaA4 (Abeta) amyloid peptide, a major component of Alzheimer's disease (AD) plaques, is a proteolytic product of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Endoproteases, termed beta- and gamma-secretase, release respectively the N- and C-termini of the peptide. APP default secretion involves cleavage within the betaA4 domain by alpha-secretase. To study the conservation of APP processing in lower eukaryotes, the yeast Pichia pastoris was transfected with human APP695 cDNA. In addition to the full-length integral transmembrane protein found in the cell lysate, soluble/secreted APP (sAPP) was detected in the culture medium. Most sAPP comprised the N-terminal moiety of betaA4 and corresponds to sAPPalpha, the product of alpha-secretase. The culture medium also contained minor secreted forms detected by a monoclonal antibody specific for sAPPbeta (the ectodomain released by beta-secretase cleavage). Analysis of the cell lysates with specific antibodies also detected membrane-associated C-terminal fragments corresponding to the products of alpha and beta cleavages. Moreover, immunoprecipitation of the culture medium with three antibodies directed at distinct epitopes of the betaA4 domain yielded a 4 kDa product with the same electrophoretic mobility as betaA4 synthetic peptide. These results suggest that the alpha-, beta-, and gamma-secretase cleavages are conserved in yeast and that P. pastoris may offer an alternative to mammalian cells to identify the proteases involved in the generation of AD betaA4 amyloid.

Processing of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein in Pichia pastoris: immunodetection of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-secretase products.

Studies on inhibition of β-amyloid formation in APP-751-transfected IMR-32 cells, and SPA4CT-transfected SHSY5Y cells

588 Studies on inhibition of βA4 formation in APP-751 transfected IMR-32 cells, and SPA4CT transfected SHSYSY cells

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Processing of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein in Pichia pastoris: immunodetection of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-secretase products.

Studies on inhibition of β-amyloid formation in APP-751-transfected IMR-32 cells, and SPA4CT-transfected SHSY5Y cells

588 Studies on inhibition of βA4 formation in APP-751 transfected IMR-32 cells, and SPA4CT transfected SHSYSY cells